Commentary on the First Epistle to the Corinthians

I, when I came to you, brothers, came not with eminence of speech or of wisdom, proclaiming to you the mystery of God.

For I did not judge myself to know anything among you, except Jesus Christ, and him crucified. Since above he showed gradually the form of our discipline, now he proves that he handed it on to them in no other way than what he has shown; because both in humility of speech, and in the foolishness of preaching, as it seems to the world, he spoke to them of the mystery concerning Christ. He calls it a mystery for this reason, because what became incarnate was hidden from the ages, with God, God the Word.

But that the heretics were those in whom they gloried, since they both commended corrupt doctrine through eloquence, and, following the prudence of the world, emptied the cross of Christ, blushing to be called fools by the world; so that they neither preached Christ as born of a Virgin, nor taught that he was truly crucified; because it seems foolish to confess that the Son of God was born a man and crucified. These the apostle John also designates, saying: Whoever denies that Christ has come in the flesh is an antichrist; and whoever denies the Son, has not the Father either; because they said the Father himself was called the Son; from whom Marcion drew his error. What he reproves seems veiled; because he does not make it manifest, but wishes it to be understood from what is found in worldly prudence, which is hostile to religion.

But what things he reproves are meant to be learned from his own judgment; so that whatever things he mocks as foolish among us, he may show that he is rebuking all these things in the Corinthians. For he mentions the body itself, so that from it the arrangement of its members may be recognized: yet to the Corinthians these things were manifest; because they were not ignorant of the causes for which they were being reproved.

I was with you in weakness, and in fear, and in much trembling.

For preaching Christ amid the foolishness of human wisdom, he provoked hatred and persecutions against himself, as if announcing a vain thing, and one hostile to Jews and Gentiles.

my speech and my preaching were not in the persuasiveness of human wisdom.

He shows that he did not, in order to acquire the favor of men, seek to please human wisdom, nor did he pursue skill in words, but showed faith to its author, who did not want his teaching to be made acceptable by the ornament of human tradition through the noise of words, but by the very facts; because facts come before words.

But in the demonstration of the Spirit and of power of God.

Because, just as with words which are weak compared to power, foolish things adorned appear prudent, God wanted his preaching to be commended not by the testimony of words, but of power; so that, the foolishness of the word being pointed out, it might show by deeds its wisdom, founded on spiritual reason.

So that your faith might not be in the wisdom of men, but in the power of God; but we speak wisdom among the perfect

that is, among those who confess the cross of Christ to be wisdom by the testimony of power. For these are wise and perfect, who hold the faith no more by words than by facts. But wisdom not of this age. He rightly says wisdom not of this age, but of the age to come, in which the truth of God will appear to those who deny it; for this age does not grasp this reasoning, owing to the weakness of earthly thought.

Nor of the rulers of this age, who are being destroyed.

It is clear that this wisdom does not belong to the rulers of this world, since they are destroyed by it. For Christianity has cut off the errors which they had sown, that is, idolatry, avarice, and the other vices, as the apostle John says. For this the Son of God came, that he might undo the works of the devil.

But we speak the wisdom of God in a mystery, which is hidden.

He testifies that he was sent to make manifest a hidden meaning, which neither the rulers nor the powers knew, nor had the world heard; and thereby it is thought foolish, because it is unknown: yet it is rational and salutary, with power as witness, to which all effort of human reasoning yields. The wisdom of God is hidden, then, in that it is not in words, but in power; not possible by human reason, but credible by the efficacy of the Spirit.

Which God predestined before the ages for our glory.

To such a degree is it declared true wisdom, and to have been always with God; that it is said to have been predestined before the ages for our glory, we who believe. For God, foreknowing the errors that would arise in the world he was about to make, decreed this to the confusion of those who were going to make foolishness their wisdom: but for our glory, we who were to believe, and do believe.

Which none of the rulers of this age knew; for if they had known, they would never have crucified the Lord of glory.

The rulers of this age are to be understood not only as the men of the Jews and the Romans: but also those rulers and powers whom he mentioned above, to whom this saying truly pertains, against whom our struggle is with spiritual wickedness in the heavenly places; because by their counsel and will Christ was crucified. Indeed, after the temptations, the devil departed, it says, for a time.

And the Lord himself says: The prince of this world is coming, and finds nothing in me.

The rulers of this age, then, crucified the Lord of glory through ignorance; for how can the rulers of the Jews be understood as rulers of this age, seeing they were subject to the Roman kingdom? Nor did the rulers of the Romans crucify Christ; since Pilate said: I find no cause of death in him. Whence he also washed his hands, saying to the Jews: I am innocent of the blood of this just man, you shall see to it. These, then, are the rulers who crucified the Lord Christ, whom he triumphed over freely in himself; although Mark the evangelist says of the demons: For they knew that he was Jesus Christ. They knew indeed that it was he, but he who had been promised in the Law: yet they did not know the mystery of him, by which he is the Son of God.

This also the apostle Peter said to the Jewish people: I know, brothers, that you did this evil through ignorance, as also your rulers—not, however, rulers of this age. If, then, the servants killed the Lord through ignorance, sin ought not to be ascribed to them. But it is not permitted to be ignorant of this. And although they did not know he was the Lord, they were not ignorant that they were doing an impious deed.

Yet the Lord of glory is said to have been crucified, though he cannot die: but

because the Word was made flesh, that is, the Son of God incarnate became man, death is ascribed to him; because the Jews assuredly did not persecute the flesh, but him who was working through the flesh; and thereby, although the Lord of glory does not know death, yet as far as concerns the will of the Jews and of the rulers of this age, they killed the Lord in the flesh.

But as it is written: What eye has not seen, nor ear heard, nor has it entered into the heart of man, what God has prepared for those who love him.

This is written in the Apocalypse of Elijah, among the apocryphal writings.

By this example he speaks of an unexpected thing done, and one which not only would not fall within human perception, but would even be hidden from the heavenly powers, namely, the incarnate Son of God; so that he might confirm what he had said above, that if the rulers of this age did not understand God made man, how much more men! But if the words caused offense or scandal, yet faith ought not to have been denied on account of the powers and signs. For power ought to have been preferred to human weakness and ignorance, and belief given to what seemed impossible to human reason; and so, for those who love God, that is, for believers, he has prepared this gift.

But to us God has revealed it through his Spirit.

And because the princes of this age were ignorant of this, God revealed it through his Spirit to believers; because the things of God cannot be learned without the Spirit of God.

For he says that he declares this mystery not only to men, but also to the princes and powers in the heavens, who crucified the Lord; so that, while this is preached on earth, those who are in the carnal heavens, who dwell beneath the elements of the firmament, might learn it. This apostle, then, is singular, in that he has obtained this grace; because the mystery of the Trinity could be explained by no one so well: whence he was also called by divine judgment a vessel of election.

For the Spirit searches all things, even the depths of God. Because this Spirit is of God, he knows all things. He says "the depths of God," because he knows all his power and foreknowledge: which is altogether impossible for a creature.

For who among men knows the things of a man, except the spirit of the man which is in him? It is manifest that our thoughts are known by no one except by our own soul, which he called spirit. Hence also in the Gospel among other things it says thus: And her spirit returned to her.

So too the things of God no one knows, except the Spirit of God.

This Spirit of God taught us what he knows by nature, not having been taught; and he taught us of the mystery of Christ; because he is not only the Spirit of God, but also of Christ.

Now we have not received the spirit of this world, but the Spirit who is from God.

Hence we know that we have received the Spirit who is from God, because the spirit of the world cannot know the things which have been made known to us by this Spirit. Yet there is a spirit of the world, by which fanatics are seized, who are without God; for it is a spirit more powerful than mortal men; hence it is wont to divine by conjectures of worldly things, which they call the python. This is he who is deceived and deceives through plausible things: this is he who spoke through the Sibyl, following our understanding, wishing to have a place among the heavenly ones.

That we may know the things that have been given to us by God.

Because the Spirit of God has been given to us, we know the things given to us by God. For we could not know these things if we had the spirit of the world; because the spirit of the world cannot know them. For no one knows the mind of God, except him who is of God, the Spirit of God; for lower things cannot know the counsel of higher things, nor can a creature discern the will of its Creator.

Which things also we speak.

That from this it may be manifest that we know the things given to us by God; because we also speak these things, so that others too may learn through spiritual teaching. For to the preachers, that is, to the apostles, these things were divinely made known, that they might hand them on to the peoples, and that the princes of this age might learn what evil they had committed.

Not in the teaching of the words of human wisdom, but in the teaching of the Spirit; for the words of human wisdom do not see this meaning, nor is it grasped by literary studies: but it is conceived through faith by a spiritual reasoning, as the prophet Isaiah says: Unless you believe, you shall not understand. For it is learned more by a natural law than by the course of the stars, and the calculations of the signs which are marked in the firmament. Finally, believers see that what they believe agrees not with human words but with their own nature; for the work recognizes its maker: and therefore the Gospel speaks spiritual things to our souls, rousing them to the knowledge of their Creator.

Comparing spiritual things with spiritual.

That is, to those who reject worldly prudence, handing over the spiritual efficacy which is contained in the mystery of faith, for the enlightening of the minds of well-disposed men; for those who believe what worldly wisdom judges foolish, are spiritual.

But the animal man does not perceive the things that are of the Spirit of God; he does not know them, for it is foolishness to him. For, like the beasts, he presses down his understanding into the earth; and therefore he grasps nothing except what he sees: nor does he think anything can happen except as he knows it can. Therefore whatever he hears otherwise than he knows, he judges foolish; for he supposes nothing can happen without commixture. Hence he laughs on hearing that God has begotten a Son, whom he knows to be simple and incorporeal: and that a Virgin gave birth, and that dissolved bodies are again recalled to life; whereas these things rather redound to the praise of God, in that it is believed that he did what the reasoning of the work cannot investigate; for it is God who did it.

For human weakness thinks foolish what its own knowledge cannot conclude; whereas it ought rather to hold that as foolish, and that as wise, which, because it is said to be done by God, cannot be comprehended. And he cannot know it; because it is spiritually judged. Following human tradition, while they deny the faith of the one God, that has been done spiritually which they, puffed up by carnal reasoning, think cannot happen: and thus the reprobate, being marked, are spiritually condemned.

But the spiritual man judges all things, and he himself is judged by no one.

Because the true reasoning belongs to the spiritual, that is, to believers; for one is called that which one believes: therefore they themselves judge all things. For by their example unbelief shall be judged: but they themselves shall be judged by no one. For who shall condemn one who speaks the truth?

For since it is agreed that all enemies of the faith hold false things for true, their accusation has already been reduced to nothing, condemned by the judgment of truth; because he who does not believe, says the Lord, is already judged.

For who has known the mind of the Lord? Who shall instruct him? It is the mind of God that he commanded these things to be done spiritually, by which the wisdom of the world was proved foolish, denying that what was done could be done. There is no one who has known this mind and been displeased with it, so as to amend the counsel of God; because he who has known it praises the power of God, whom he who denies that all things are possible, does not even believe made the world. For what great thing is it that he should be believed to have begotten of himself, when it is not doubted that he made all things out of nothing? Since the Savior himself says: But with God all things are possible.

But we have the mind of the Lord.

He says this, because believers are partakers of that same divine understanding.

I, brethren, could not speak to you as to spiritual men, but as to carnal.

He speaks now to those who, because they still served the pleasures of the age, were carnal. Although they had already been baptized and had received the Holy Spirit; yet because after baptism they had immediately reverted to the old man, whom they had renounced, they are called carnal. For the Holy Spirit then remains in him into whom he had poured himself, if he remains in the purpose of regeneration: if not, he departs; yet in such a way that if a man reforms himself, he returns to him. For he is always ready for good, loving repentance. As to little ones in Christ I gave you milk to drink, not food.

Although they had been reborn in Christ, yet it was not fitting that spiritual things be delivered to them; for having received faith, which is as it were a spiritual seed, they produced no fruit worthy of God, so as to merit learning the words of perfection: but as little children they were occupied with the perceptions of imperfection. Now the apostle, a divine man and spiritual physician, was delivering to each according to his strength; lest through imperfection and inexperience anyone should suffer scandal concerning spiritual matters.

For you were not yet able. He shows plainly that they ought not to have heard what is to be said to the confirmed. But not even now are you able; for you are still carnal. Here he strongly rebukes the rashness of those who had long complained that they had not heard spiritual things; when they were still unworthy to hear them.

For the pseudo-apostles handed things over promiscuously to all in one and the same manner, discerning no one's person; that they might become acceptable, being commended through hypocrisy: whereas it is agreed that our Lord and author Christ addressed the peoples differently from the disciples, and that there was a difference even among the apostles themselves; for he showed his glory on the mountain to three disciples, telling them to keep silent about the vision until he should rise from the dead.

For when there are among you jealousies and contentions, are you not carnal, and walking according to man? He shows the cause of unworthiness; because whoever hopes for help from man is carnal. But whoever, having spurned humanity, hopes in God, is spiritual; because God is spirit.

For when one says: I am of Paul; and another: I am of Apollos; are you not men?

For just as those glorying in God, and hoping for all grace from him, are called gods, being adopted by God; so also those glorying in man are called both men and carnal, being shut up by the sentence of God, who says: I said, you are gods; but you shall die like men. He begins, therefore, from his own person; lest he be thought perhaps to be destroying their persons more out of envy, showing that it is a great error and pertains to the injury of God, when, God being preached, glory is given to men. What then is less than heathendom, so long as something is still hoped from men?

What then is Apollos?

What is Paul? Ministers of him in whom you have believed. That because they are ministers, hope should not be in them, but in God, whose ministers they are. For to him thanksgiving must be rendered, whose gift it is; but they are servants, whom it behooves to administer even unwillingly.

Was not Moses forced to go to Pharaoh; and Jonah sent unwillingly to preach to the Ninevites; and Ananias, protesting, sent to lay hands on Saul? And to each as the Lord gave

that is, as he willed, and knew, he divided to each the offices of ministry.

I planted, Apollos watered, but God gave the increase.

To plant is to evangelize, and to draw to faith: but to water is to baptize with solemn words: but to forgive sins, and to give the Spirit, belongs to God alone. If, then, God gives the effect of salvation, there is no glory of man in this matter. For we know too that the Holy Spirit was given by God without the laying on of hands, and that one not yet baptized obtained the remission of sins. Was he not invisibly baptized, when he obtained the gift of baptism?

So then neither is he who plants anything, nor he who waters: but God who gives the increase.

For things planted are wont to die, and things watered fail to attain the effect of fruitfulness, unless God gives life-force. As far, then, as pertains to the honoring of God, man is nothing: but as far as pertains to ministry, he is necessary; that he may be honored as a servant, not that anything be hoped from him to the injury of God.

He who plants and he who waters are one. They are one, because both are hired laborers; although their offices differ. But each will receive his own reward according to his own labor. For although they are one, yet because he who evangelizes is greater than he who baptizes; therefore he distinguished their rewards; and this pertains not only to this, but also to the sincerity of doctrine: that he who delivers doctrine unviolated should be worthy of greater reward.

For we are fellow-workers of God: you are God's cultivation, God's building.

This pertains to the person of the apostles, who are agreed to be God's helpers; because they are Christ's vicars.

According to the grace of God which was given to me, as a wise architect I laid a foundation.

He says that grace was given to him, that he might be worthy to preach the Gospel; that he might also show that this belongs to God, not to man. According to this grace, then, he says he has laid the foundation as a wise architect. A wise architect is one who lays the foundation according to the discipline of the author, that is, who evangelizes according to the tradition of the Savior.

But another builds upon it.

Superstructures are those things which, after the preaching of the apostles, are handed down by those who come afterward, whether bad or good teachers.

But let each one see how he builds upon it

that is, that the superstructures agree with the foundation; lest, if they are crooked and frivolous, they cause ruin, while the foundation remains unharmed; because if he has taught badly, the name of Christ remains, which is the foundation: but the bad doctrine will perish, as the Lord says: Every plant which my heavenly Father has not planted shall be uprooted.

For no other foundation can anyone lay besides that which has been laid, which is Christ Jesus. Therefore no one can lay another foundation, because although there are certain heretics, yet they do not teach except under the name of Christ. For otherwise they cannot commend the fabrications of error, unless they preach with the Savior's name interposed; so that the dignity of the name makes contrary and absurd things acceptable.

But if anyone builds upon this foundation gold, silver, precious stones.

Precious stones are those which fire does not corrupt.

He has set forth three splendid kinds in the world, by which he signified good doctrine, Wood, hay, stubble: he set forth three other kinds, but frivolous ones. In these corrupt and vain doctrine is recognized as designated.

He who does this work will be manifest; for the day will declare it, because it will be revealed in fire. This means that bad doctrine will appear to all in the fire; for now it deceives some. And the fire will test what sort of work each one's is. Because the testing will happen by fire, if in someone it finds nothing to burn up, it manifests that he was a good teacher; for bad and adulterated doctrine was thus signified in wood, hay, and stubble, that fire might be shown to be its food.

If anyone's work which he built upon it remains, he shall receive a reward.

For when no filth of depraved doctrine shall have been found in him, as in good gold; so it will be with him as with the three brothers in the furnace of fire, about to receive as reward eternal life with glory; because as gold and silver, and stones, which fire does not consume: so also the good teacher will remain incorruptible.

If anyone's work burns, he shall suffer loss.

The work said to burn is bad doctrine, which will perish. For all evil things will perish, as the way of the wicked; because they are not substances, but perverse assertions. To suffer loss is to undergo punishment. For who, placed in punishment, does not suffer loss? But he himself shall be saved, yet so as through fire. He said he would be saved; because the substance of which he consists will not perish, just as the bad doctrine will perish; because it is an accidental cause.

And he said this: yet so as through fire; that this salvation might not be without punishment

because he did not say: He shall be saved through fire; as though, unburned by the fire by his own merit, he would be saved, having been tested by fire; but when he says, Yet so as through fire, he shows that he indeed will be saved, but will suffer the punishments of fire; that, purged by fire, he may be made safe, and not be tormented forever in eternal fire like the unfaithful: that from some part it may be worthwhile to have believed in Christ. For he who sees that he has defended what is false as though it were true must always blush; and in like manner he will always have confidence in God, who, having rejected the false, has followed the true; and, having spurned impiety, has yielded to piety.

For outside the Catholic Church, whatever there is, is contrary.

Do you not know that you are the temple of God, and that the Spirit of God dwells in you?

He says we are the temple of God, that we may know that God dwells in us; for he must dwell in his own temple. And because he says the Spirit of God dwells in us, he signifies that the Holy Spirit is to be understood as God.

If anyone violates the temple of God, God will destroy him, for the temple of God is holy, which you are.

He put these things first in order to sting those who, living shamefully, had corrupted their bodies by defiling them; especially him who had his father's wife; that he might already be guilty before his case broke into the open.

Accordingly, in similar, indeed the same manner, when he judges his case, he speaks saying: Do you not know that your bodies are a temple of the Holy Spirit, who is in you, whom you have from God. Above he said "temple of God"; but in this place, "temple of the Holy Spirit." Who here would doubt that he signified the Holy Spirit to be God?

Let no one deceive himself: that is, let no one think, by his own or human counsel, that he profits himself.

He returns to the earlier meaning: If anyone among you seems to be wise in this age, let him become foolish, that he may be wise.

He says this, because if anyone understands the promised salvation, and the mystery of the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ, let him become foolish, that is, let him flee the wisdom of the world, that he may be judged foolish by it, and then he will be prudent; because he who is foolish to the world is prudent to God, in that he believes God has done what the reasoning of the world cannot grasp, as I have mentioned above. But the pseudo-apostles, wishing to seem prudent in the world, were preaching that neither did God have a Son, nor was the incarnation true, nor could the flesh rise again.

For the wisdom of this world is foolishness with God.

Thus the wisdom of this world is foolishness with God, in that God does what the world denies can be done; he proves its wisdom to be foolishness, and since they speak of many gods, while faith proves one, attested by power, they are confounded in their own prudence.

For it is written: He catches the wise in their craftiness. And again: The Lord knows the thoughts of the wise, that they are vain. This is found in the ninety-third psalm. Indeed the meaning is the same; for, knowing the vain thoughts of those men, that he might prove them foolish, he rebuked their wisdom, showing to be true what they said was false; and false, what they thought was true.

Therefore let no one glory in man.

Because human thoughts and counsels are improvident and weak, he teaches that one should not glory in man, but in God, whose counsel cannot be reconsidered: for whatever men are wise in without God is foolish.

For all things are yours, whether Paul, or Apollos, or Cephas, or the world, or life, or death, or things present, or things to come: all are yours, and you are Christ's, and Christ is God's. In another place he says of the same meaning: But us your servants for Jesus' sake. He put "servants" for "ministers"; that they should not each defend one for themselves, when they were making use of all of them, just as the Lord also says: I am in the midst of you not to be served, but to serve. For indeed the world is ours, but that we should think of it according to the will of God, and set its appointed courses within God's will.

And the present life has been granted to us, but that we may pass it modestly and to the glory of God.

Or death, that we may be willing to die for Christ's sake gladly, in hope of the promise to come. Or things present, that we may so use present things as not to give offense. Or things to come, that believing in the things to come, we may commend ourselves the more to them, because they are better.

But you are Christ's: that just as these things have been granted and made subject to our judgment, so we too may be subject to Christ; since we began to exist through him, both in our first origin and in regeneration. But Christ is God's. Christ is God's own Son, of his Father, doing his will; that we too may do his. If, then, we are servants of Christ, why should we hope anything from men, to his injury?

Let a man so regard us, as ministers of Christ, and stewards of the mysteries of God.

This signifies that some of the Corinthians thought less of him: but that a man should think of him what God too thought, who had chosen him; therefore he says "ministers of Christ" and "stewards of the mysteries of God." For when he was striving to be understood not by the noise of words, nor by human wisdom, he had to administer the sacrament of Christ, in which not words but power shone forth: not that man, but God, might be seen as glorious; for, a colleague of fishermen, he preached Christ just as they did, no differently. When, therefore, he shows himself to be a minister of Christ and of the mysteries of God, he marks the pseudo-apostles, and denies that what they hand down is Christ's, in that they disagree with apostolic tradition.

Here now it is required among stewards, that a man be found faithful.

What he says pertains not only to the person of the pseudo-apostles; but also to the rest, who, having received the stewardship, either out of shame, or fear, or certainly for the sake of their own commendation, were afraid to constantly reprove either bad opinions or morals. But he was so constant that he did not even spare his own life, provided he faithfully carried out all things.

But to me it is a very small thing that I should be judged by you, or by man's day.

Those whom he reproves for such great vices, he says it is a miserable thing to be judged by them; since he knew that he was not to be judged even by the just. Or by man's day, that is, because he was not to be judged even by the laws entrusted to the world. For, having surpassed human justice, he strove for heavenly justice, as the Lord says: Unless your righteousness exceeds that of the scribes and Pharisees, you shall not enter the kingdom of God.

When, then, he says "man's day," he also signifies the divine day, in which Christ is to judge, because just as jurists or pontiffs, whom they call priests, have decreed certain days on which judgment is given; so too the Lord's day is fixed, on which he will judge the world.

But neither do I judge my own self; for I am conscious to myself of nothing.

It is plain that, having a pure conscience, he was not anxious about himself. But I am not hereby justified. Now he humbles himself, and speaks as a man, who might unknowingly incur guilt. But he who judges me is the Lord. Rightly he says this; for although he humbled himself, yet he gave the most to the Lord Christ; because he can, when he judges hidden things, make manifest what escapes a man, not that he may make him guilty, but prudent. For although a man be holy, yet he is a man, of whom it cannot be that nothing at all escapes him.

For sometimes we think something useful which is useless; for we do not have all the parts or sides of human conduct set down; but from those things which are grave, we are clearly forbidden. For certain causes are wont to deceive us, arising from certain circumstances; so that we think useful what is not useful: which indeed is a light matter, because the purpose is free.

Therefore do not judge before the time, until the Lord comes. He warns them not to judge, since they are to be judged, and would have a double sin, as the Lord says: Judge not, that you may not be judged; but await the day of God's judgment, as though they were faithful and good. For it is an injury to a judge, if before his cognizance a judgment or sentence proceeds from a servant.

Who will both bring to light the hidden things of darkness, and manifest the counsels of hearts: and then shall each one have praise from God.

He says this, because on the day of judgment nothing will be hidden of what has been done or thought: and simplicity and hypocrisy will appear there; so that he who was held in contempt may perhaps appear worthy: and he who was thought to be something may be found reprobate. For all things will be bare on the day of judgment, and then there will be praise for one who acts or thinks well. For it is unclear here whether one who is praised is worthy, just as he also says in another place: For not he who commends himself is approved, but he whom God commends, whom, indeed, nothing escapes.

Now these things, brethren, I have transferred figuratively to myself and Apollos for your sake; that you may learn in us, not to be puffed up one for one against another, beyond what is written.

He transferred these things figuratively to himself and Apollos, in that under his own person and that of Apollos he sets at naught the glories and perverse traditions of the pseudo-apostles, designating them summarily, not one by one; lest perhaps greater discord should arise among the people. For no one, hearing his own name censured, or that of one whom he favors, is content to be silent: but if one hears no name mentioned, even if he understands it to be said of himself, he dissembles. Under this proposal, therefore, he emptied their persons of significance, when he says: I planted, Apollos watered, that in these matters they might learn that nothing is to be given to men.

For who distinguishes you? That is, there are some who, having received more in baptism or in teaching, say that others have obtained less. He says this to those who thought that those baptized by others amounted to something more: whose eloquence was such that they were seduced, so that they thought crooked things straight by a certain coloring.

For there was such discord among the people, that there were many factions of diverse parties: and so the Apostle fitted all his words, without naming names, to all the parties; so that when the letter was read, each party would take what was said as directed to itself, hearing what it recognized as pertaining to the defense of its own cause.

For what do you have that you did not receive? He says he obtained nothing further good from others than what he had received from him, and that therefore he complains in vain; for what they had, they had received from the Apostle. But he seems to speak to one person, because he speaks to a part of the people.

But if you received it, why do you boast as though you had not received it?

This is what those who mocked the Apostle did through inexperience; that, hearing the same things which they had already learned from the Apostle, setting him at naught, they boasted of the teaching of these men; for, being commended by eloquence, they turned to themselves the glory of the preaching. But the Apostle wished to appear contemptible, provided he made the glory of God acceptable.

Now you are filled, now you have become rich, you reign without us.

This is irony, as they say; for these are the words of one who is angry, not of one who confirms. For to those in whom he rebukes such great vices, he says they reign; for so they thought, glorying in what was handed down by the pseudo-apostles.

And would that you did reign, that we too might reign with you.

As a pious father wishes well even to ungrateful sons. For how could it be that they should reign without the apostles? For whatever is not handed down by the apostles is full of crimes. Yet the order would have been to say: That you might reign with us; but because he had already said: And would that you did reign, he could not say otherwise than: That we too might reign with you. Now to reign is to be secure concerning the hope and promises of Christ, and to rejoice in those adversities which happen for the sake of the name of Christ; for they bring gain, not loss. Whence in another place he says: When I am weak, then I am powerful.

For I think that God has displayed us apostles last, as men appointed unto death.

He attributes this to his own person, because he was always in necessity, having suffered persecutions and pressures beyond the rest, just as Enoch and Elijah are to suffer, who in the last time are to be apostles. For they will be sent before Christ to prepare the people of God and to fortify all the churches to withstand antichrist, and the reading of the Apocalypse testifies that they too will suffer persecutions and be killed. This, then, the Apostle compared to his own time, saying: As men appointed unto death, for they too shall come to this, that they may be killed.

Because we have been made a spectacle to this world, both to angels and to men. Because Enoch and Elijah shall be a spectacle to such a degree that their bodies will be cast out in the street in the sight of the whole unbelieving people; so too the apostles were made a spectacle; because they were publicly seen, exposed to the injury and death which they suffered. He said "world," "angels," and "men"; because there are also evil angels, as David says in the seventy-seventh psalm: He vexed them by evil angels; and evil and unbelieving men; to these the injuries of the apostles are a delight. But "world" is called unbelief, because it follows visible things.

We are fools for Christ's sake.

It is true that those who love Christ are fools to the world. But you are wise in Christ. He who is judged wise in Christ by the unfaithful does not rightly assert Christ.

Thus Marcion

because he denies the Son of God, and that God could be incarnate, is wise to the world; and Photinus, because he does not confess Christ to be God through that by which he was born, seems wise to worldly men.

We are weak.

Weak, because, without flattery and with what seems foolishness to worldly men, in preaching Christ they were subjected to injuries. But you are strong. Strong for this reason, that they thus professed Christ so as not to offend men, that they might be secure.

You are noble.

For he who does not confess Christ, because he was promised to Abraham, and preached from the beginning, is noble against Christ; because he attributes the antiquity of Christ's promise to others. But we are ignoble. He is ignoble to the world who professes Christ from the beginning, which the world denies. All these things, then, said above, which he seems to deny, he confirms; and what he seems as it were to confirm, he denies. For these are the words of one who is angry, who confesses by denying, and denies by confessing.

Even to this hour we both hunger, and thirst, and are naked, and are buffeted, and have no fixed abode, and labor, working with our own hands.

For, preaching Christ freely and according to the true faith, without any flattery, and reproving the deeds of a depraved life, they had no favor among men, and were buffeted, that is, subjected to injuries, and had no fixed abode; because they were driven off, lest, remaining long in one place, they should teach more people. Therefore they also worked with their hands, because not only did they have no favor among men; but it was even unworthy to accept from those who were devoted to error, as he says in the hundred-fortieth psalm: But let not the oil of the sinner fatten my head. Because both he who accepts from one loses the freedom to reprove, and sins, and he sins who gives, in order that he might not be reproved.

We are reviled, and we bless: for they exhorted to good those who treated them badly.

We suffer persecution, and we endure it; because they did not resist those who persecuted them.

We are blasphemed, and we entreat: for they, being blasphemed, asked that they might be permitted to render an account.

We are made as it were the offscouring of this world, the refuse of all things, even until now.

By resisting no one, and returning no evil for evil, but always subjecting themselves; that through patience they might call back to good, they became contemptible and despised. Even until now, that is, even until now among the Corinthians, for whose sake he suffered the evils he has mentioned above. And since he saw that his humility profited nothing in these matters, moved by grief he complains that such subjection and injuries could bear no fruit; but, what is worse, had gone from bad to worse.

I write not these things to confound you: that is, I write these things not to make you blush, but that you may amend.

But as my dearest sons I admonish you. Still he makes himself a suppliant, lest, being reproved and provoked to anger, they should scorn his admonitions.

He does this like a healing physician, who, cutting away the diseased parts, mitigates the pain inflicted by hope and gentle words, so that the sick man may allow himself to be healed.

For if you should have ten thousand tutors in Christ, yet not many fathers. For in Christ Jesus, through the Gospel, I have begotten you. By these words he shows that no one can love them with the affection with which he himself loved them. For who would prefer other men's sons to his own in love? And through this his admonitions, since he suffered such great evils for their sake, ought not to be scorned by them.

I beseech you, therefore, be imitators of me.

O the benevolence of the holy Apostle, who beseeches his sons to imitate their father, that is, of his own accord asks the sick to receive medicine!

In this, however, he wishes them to be his imitators; so that, just as he suffered many deaths for their salvation from unbelievers, and did not yield, provided that by day and by night he might evangelize to them the gift of God's grace; so too they, remaining in his faith and doctrine, should not receive the wicked fabrications of the false apostles, but resist, scorning reproaches and detractions, that they might preserve inviolate affection for their spiritual father.

For this I have sent to you Timothy, who is my beloved and faithful son in the Lord. He exhorts them by this same Timothy, whom for this reason he calls his beloved and faithful son in the Lord, so that in this they might learn what they had done wrong; for when he bears witness to him, he reproves them.

Who shall put you in mind of my ways, which are in Christ Jesus, as I teach everywhere in every Church.

Through this man, whom he confirms as a faithful son in the Lord, he wishes them to return to the rule of the truth he had handed down; so that, admonished by his words and by the examples of his works, they might come to their senses, recognizing that they had not been wrongly taught by the Apostle, since they were learning that all the Churches held the same things.

As though I were not to come to you, so some are puffed up.

Certain of the Corinthians were indignant that he was not going to them, not out of desire, but out of pride, because he seemed to regard them as unworthy; whereas it was rather the Apostle's zeal to make the unworthy worthy. He had, then, the desire to go, but there were greater matters which he was attending to.

But I will come to you shortly, if the Lord permit.

After the admonition he promises that he will go to them, but if the Lord should permit; so that, since God knows more than man, if he should know it worth the effort, he would permit it; and if he did not go, it would show that the Lord had not allowed it, on account of their unworthiness.

And I will know, not the speech of those who are puffed up, but the power.

He confounds them, because, though they were living crookedly, they were indignant, as though they were worthy to be visited by the Apostle.

For the kingdom of God is not in speech, but in power. So that, just as the kingdom of God is commended not by the splendor of words but by the power of signs, so also these should show themselves worthy to be visited by the Apostle, not by bare words, but by the power of spiritual works.

What will you?

Shall I come to you with a rod, or in charity and the spirit of meekness? He brings in words of terror, so that those who were puffed up, having suffered shame, might be humbled; so that, if they truly desired the Apostle's presence, they might prepare themselves to receive him, that is, wash themselves from every stain of crime; so that, coming to them, he might have joy as with most dear children.

It is reported altogether that there is fornication among you, and such fornication as is not even among the Gentiles. That he might show how grave this sin was, he says it is not committed even by those who do not know God; so that he might show by what punishment this man ought to be chastised, who, being set under the eternal and divine justice, had committed the crime of so great a wickedness.

So that one should have his father's wife.

He revealed the kind of the aforementioned crime; so that he might not only make that man clearly guilty of death, but also show that those adhering to him were not free from the crime; for in a matter in which sin is difficult to commit, it makes one more guilty.

you are puffed up, and have not rather mourned.

He humbles their pride to such a degree that he makes them not now complainers, but rather suppliants. For they themselves were also participants, in that they suffered a man guilty of so monstrous a crime to associate with them uncorrected; so that all with one counsel should cast him out, if he refused to amend himself. But if anyone does not have the power to cast out a guilty person, or is unable to prove it, he is free from blame, and it is not for a judge to condemn without an accuser, since even the Lord did not cast out Judas, though he was a thief, because he was not accused.

That he who has done this deed might be taken away from among you.

This deed being known, he ought to have been expelled from the assembly of the brotherhood; for all knew his crime, and did not rebuke it; for he openly kept his stepmother in the place of a wife. In this matter there was no need of witnesses, nor could the crime be covered by any evasion.

For I indeed, absent in body, but present in spirit—that is, absent in face, but present by the authority of the spirit, which is nowhere absent—have already judged, as though present, him who has committed this, in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, you being gathered together and my spirit, with the power of our Lord Jesus, to deliver such a one to Satan for the destruction of the flesh. Since all fleshly pleasure is of the devil, and by this, when one is given over to this pleasure, he is delivered to Satan; for the flesh has this in its nature, that it perishes; therefore the soul, when it joins itself to its desire, weakening its own spiritual vigor, suffers destruction along with it. And so if this man, having been corrected for the fornication he committed, should feel shame at being cast out, he would not perish, repentance following.

Not only by the consent and presence of all, but by the power of the Lord Jesus

that is, by the sentence whose embassy the Apostle discharged, he judged that man ought to be cast out of the Church. When he is cast out, he is delivered to Satan for the destruction of the flesh; for both soul and body perish, when things contrary to the law are done: but in this case the destruction of the flesh is reckoned to the man in a particular way. For although all sins render a man carnal, this nevertheless is specially the desire of the flesh, whereby he delivers along with the body to hell; because the soul, conquered, defiled by filth, becomes flesh through the lust of the flesh; just as the body, rightly governed, is called spiritual. Yet it is the mind which, either conquered by allurements, makes the whole man carnal; or, remaining in the vigor of its own nature, grants to the flesh that it be called spiritual.

That the spirit may be saved in the day of the Lord Jesus Christ.

He delivers the aforementioned contaminated man to Satan, that the spirit may be saved among the men of the Church in the day of judgment; for unless he had been cast out, the spirit of the Church would not be saved in the day of judgment. For he was abandoning all through the cause of contamination, so that in the day of the Lord, found stripped of the Holy Spirit, they might hear from the Lord the judge: Depart from me, I know you not; as he says to the Romans: But if any man have not the spirit of Christ, he is none of his; and in another epistle: Grieve not the Holy Spirit of God. For if he is grieved, he departs, and one will not be saved: not indeed for himself, who is impassible, but for us, to whom he has been given, that through him we might be proved to be sons of God.

For a thing which is lost is not safe—not, indeed, in itself, since wherever it may be, it must needs be; but with reference to him from whom it is lost.

Is your glorying good?

That is, it is not good; for they were rejoicing, when they ought rather to have been grieved over a brother sinning so bitterly, just as Samuel was sorrowful over Saul's sin. From which crime bad teachers either dissembled, or reproved too negligently (as also Eli the priest with his sons sinning against God), lest they be hated by men.

Know you not that a little leaven corrupts the whole lump?

So also the sin of one, which, being known, is not rebuked, contaminates many; indeed, all who know of it and do not avoid it, or who, when they could rebuke it, dissemble. For he does not think himself to be sinning, when he is corrected or avoided by no one.

Purge out the old leaven, that you may be a new lump.

This is to be understood in a twofold way, because there is also a leaven that is human doctrine, the Savior saying: Beware of the leaven of the Pharisees, that is, of their doctrine. So this is said both as a warning against bad doctrine, and for this reason, that with the fornicator cast out, the old leaven is cast out. It is called old because it is the sin of ancient error. But the new composition is the doctrine of Christ.

As you are unleavened.

Unleavened bread is so called from the fact of flour not fermented, when the sons of Israel were cast out of Egypt; so that leaven should be reckoned oldness, and unleavened bread newness. For, the old errors of the Egyptians cast off, they were brought into the new law; so also the Corinthians, after the errors of the pagans, were brought into the Gospel of Christ. He exhorts them, therefore, that according to their profession, which they had received from the Apostle in the name of Christ, they should also live, now being cultivators of the new life: and this is to be unleavened.

Christ our passover is sacrificed.

According to the Law he teaches that the newness of the passover consists in a certain reasoning, and therefore Christ was slain, so that from him a new preaching might make a new manner of life; so that, because we observe the reasoning of the passover, we should not follow the old life. The passover therefore is a sacrifice, not a passing-over as some think; for first there is the passover, and then the passing-over, because the example of the Savior comes first, and then the sign of salvation. For the sign does not precede the cross; for the lamb having been slain in the evening, in Egypt the sons of Israel kept the passover, with whose blood they marked the doorposts; so that the Angel passing by in the night should not touch those places which had been anointed with the blood of the lamb.

Therefore let us celebrate the feast, not with the old leaven. That is, having the joy of renewal, let us flee old deeds, casting away from us all uncleanness, which is corruption; because just as leaven corrupts the whole lump, so also an evil life corrupts the whole man. Therefore, that we should keep ourselves not only from the shamefulness of life, but also from the pursuit of iniquity, he added:

Nor with the leaven of malice and wickedness, but with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth.

That is, so that sincerity may make life clean, and truth may exclude all fraud.

I wrote to you in an epistle, not to associate with fornicators.

He indicates that he had written previously, warning them not to join themselves to men of evil life. And because perhaps they seemed not to have understood what he had written, now in this epistle he explains what he wrote, saying: Not indeed the fornicators of this world; but I wrote that you should withdraw from such brothers.

Or the covetous, or extortioners, or servants of idols; otherwise you must needs go out of this world.

Therefore he rebukes their understanding, who thought perhaps that he had forbidden association with unbelievers who are fornicators, or covetous, or extortioners, or servants of idols, but not with brothers; and therefore they did not take it ill that the man who had his father's wife was among them. If, then, you associate with these, he says, it would be better for you to die; for it is a gain for evildoers if they die sooner, rather than continue longer in their sins.

But now I have written to you, not to associate: if any man

that is named a brother among you be a fornicator, or covetous, or a server of idols, or a railer, or a drunkard, or an extortioner, with such a one not so much as to eat. He forbids taking food with a brother, but he did not forbid it with an unbeliever, since indeed he says: If any of them that believe not invite you, and you be willing to go, eat whatsoever is set before you. Therefore he says:

For what have I to do to judge them that are without? It is true that a bishop cannot judge unbelievers; but concerning a brother in whom these vices are found, he teaches that not only should the sacraments not be given to him, but not even ordinary food, so that he may be ashamed, when he is avoided, and correct himself.

Do you not judge them that are within?

A man judges when he discerns which brother he should cling to, whom he should rebuke, whom he should avoid. But them that are without, God will judge. Above he said: Judge not before the time; here he does not forbid it. But above he forbade judging what is unknown by suspicion, especially concerning the ruler; because it belongs to God alone to judge hidden things; but in this place he even commands that a brother examine a brother, as he says elsewhere: Try your own selves, if you be in the faith: prove your own selves. But they that are without will be condemned in the day of judgment; because the Lord said: He that believes not is already judged. For in whom there is no hope, he is to be reckoned as dead.

Take away the evil one from among yourselves.

He still admonishes them to be set apart from evil works and evil men.

Dare any of you, having a matter against another, be judged before the unjust, and not before the saints?

He means "unjust" in a twofold sense: both those who do not believe, and those who frequently interpret with flattery the laws entrusted by God to the world, attributing the authority of these to idols, and are therefore unjust; and because in the Church there is rather law, where the Lord of the law is feared, he says it is better to conduct one's cause among the ministers of God, for they more easily pronounce the true sentence of the law out of the fear of God.

Or know you not that the saints shall judge this world?

The Apostle says nothing idly; and so he said "this world" in order to show also another; for the apostle John too says: Love not this world. And the Lord in the Gospel says: For God so loved the world. This world, then, is in error, not that higher one, after whose likeness this one was made. Whence man, placed here, was made after the image of God, so that just as in the higher world all things are from one God, so also in this one all should have their origin from one man. Hence it is that Moses says in Deuteronomy: When the Most High divided the nations, as he scattered the sons of Adam, he set the bounds of the nations according to the number of the angels of God.

What could be plainer, that this world is, for a definite reason, the image of the higher one; for there is also a lower Jerusalem, and that higher one, which the same Apostle calls our mother; there is a lower paradise, in which man, being placed, received the commandment both to work there and to keep it. There is also that heavenly one, into which the Apostle was caught up, and heard secret words. The saints, then, will judge this world: because by the example of their faith the unbelief of the world will be condemned.

And if the world shall be judged by you.

Then this world will be judged in us, if the work of unbelieving men is not found in us. Are you unworthy, then, of such a kind, that you should judge even the smallest matters? That is, they are certainly not unworthy who are to judge the world itself, to judge things that are of the world.

Know you not that we shall judge angels?

He added more, saying: we shall judge angels, that is, the spiritual powers, which elsewhere he teaches dwell in the heavens, are to be judged by us by the same kind of judgment by which the world will be judged.

If therefore you have judgments of things pertaining to this world, set them to judge who are the most despised in the Church.

Secular judgments are those pertaining to the body, or bodily matters. And because this ought not to be done, he added: I speak to your shame. Lest, because he had above named "matter" but not signified what kind, since there are also divine matters, the same saying: helper of my matter. And perhaps secular judgments, because he had forbidden them to be conducted before unbelievers, although in the Church, as they had heard, they thought nevertheless they ought to be heard or settled by whatever persons; to their shame he says: Set to judge those who are the most despised in the Church. For there are also wooden vessels in the Church; he meant them to be so unmanageable and inconsiderate that they might perhaps choose unskilled judges from among the brothers. This the Apostle says from experience; for he knew how lukewarm and improvident they had been found in other matters.

Is it so, that there is not among you any one wise man, that is able to judge between his brethren?

Because, he says, there are wise brothers, let some of these be chosen to judge, whose judgment the world may admire. For it is a great shame, if among those who are said to have known God, there be not found one who can examine a matter according to the law of the gospel. He says a brother should be chosen as judge because their ruler of the Church had not yet been ordained.

But brother goes to law with brother, and that before unbelievers.

It is clear that he means either arbitrators, as usually happens, being called for, or a public judge, to whom it is customary to say: "Today is a day of sacred festival, judgment cannot be pronounced."

Now indeed there is plainly a fault among you, that you have lawsuits one with another.

He indicates it to be a sin, that brother contends at law with brother, when effort should be made that they be of one mind, as true brothers; especially since our faith aims at peace. For although a Christian ought not to go to law, yet if the matter is grave, and cannot be overlooked, let him bring the cause before the Church; lest he incur both present loss and perhaps offense.

Why do you not rather take wrong?

Why do you not rather suffer yourselves to be defrauded? But you do wrong, and defraud, and that to your brethren. Now he rebukes those by whose injustice the quarrel is generated; because they are not only guilty for the fraud committed, but also share in the sin of those who, compelled by their injury or fraud, seek unbelievers for judgment; and while they ought not to pursue the fraud or injuries inflicted, not only do they avenge themselves, but they also themselves commit fraud and injuries; that they may give examples deserving punishment to the brothers. And what is he thought likely to do to others, who does not spare his own?

Know you not that the unjust shall not possess the kingdom of God?

By this saying he shows that they sin not in ignorance, and thereby are the more gravely to be avenged. For if the unmerciful are guilty before God, how much more the unjust? Do not err; neither fornicators, nor idolaters, nor adulterers, nor the effeminate, nor liers with mankind, nor thieves, nor the covetous, nor drunkards, nor railers, nor extortioners, shall possess the kingdom of God. He did not mention these things as though they did not know them, among whom he sat a year and six months, teaching the gospel of God; but he admonished them, so that he might restore in them reverence for the Law, and the merit of the kingdoms of heaven.

such indeed some of you were.

Lest he should seem to ascribe this to all, or, if he were silent, might indeed make all free from these crimes (for he seemed to have forbidden, not to have revealed their crimes), therefore he says thus: And such indeed you were. And lest he should provoke them to anger, he added: But you are washed; so that, acknowledging themselves guilty of crimes, they might immediately take breath on hearing: But you are washed. For some are wont to feel shame and to correct themselves, when they hear good things about themselves.

But you are sanctified, but you are justified in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, and by the Spirit of our God.

All these benefits of purity are known to be received in baptism, which is the foundation of evangelical truth. For there, with all sins laid aside, the believer is washed, and is justified in the name of the Lord, and through the Spirit of our God he is adopted as son to God. Through this he admonishes them how great and of what kind is the grace which they attained through the true tradition; but afterward, contrary to this rule of faith, under the impulse of evil teachers, thinking otherwise, they stripped themselves of these benefits. Hence he does this, that he may recall them to the true and first opinion; so that they might recover what they had attained.

All things are lawful for me, but all things are not expedient.

It seems to some that the Apostle said, on account of the freedom of allowed will: All things are lawful for me, so that it be lawful to fornicate, though not expedient. But how is what is forbidden lawful? Or certainly if all things are lawful, nothing can be called unlawful. But it is lawful, yet not expedient. These men whisper this rather than assert it, either forgetful or negligent. For John the Baptist says to Herod: It is not lawful for you to have your brother's wife. But perhaps John was without human speech, being inspired in the womb; because if this were so, he ought to have said: It is lawful for you, but not expedient. But also the Lord similarly said to the Canaanite woman: It is not lawful to take the bread of the children and cast it to the dogs.

And again the Lord says to the Jews: Have you not read what David did, when he was hungry; how he entered into the house of the Lord, and took the loaves of proposition, which it was not lawful for him to eat. Everything therefore that is forbidden is not lawful; and everything that is not lawful is forbidden: but sometimes, some cause intervening, it is lawful, but not expedient.

All things are lawful for me, but I will not be brought under the power of any.

He says all things are lawful for him, namely, those things which were lawful also for his fellow apostles, which the natural law contains, not that of Moses; because Moses forbade many things on account of the hardness of heart of the unbelieving and stiff-necked people. Yet if you look to the context, there was another sense in the Apostle's mind in saying these things; for he said these things beforehand, being about to treat this cause afterward, just as he did concerning that man who had committed incest; for he proposes, indicating what he was going to do afterward. Then he returns immediately to the previous sense, the matter having briefly, meanwhile, been commended; for he said this because it was lawful for him to receive support from these.

But since he knew that the false apostles were seeking an occasion to receive, he did not wish to receive from these, lest, for the sake of the belly, the vigor of evangelical truth should grow sluggish. For if he received from those whom he rebuked for such great vices, he would be lowering the authority of teaching granted to him by the Lord; for one cannot be firmly rebuked by one from whom one receives; especially since one is thereby prompt to give, so as to humble to himself the one set over him. Hence he also says: But I will not be brought under the power of any.

Meat for the belly, and the belly for meats: but God shall destroy both it and them.

The destruction of the belly is when the function of eating ceases; but the destruction of food will be when birth shall have ceased. The false apostles, however, who went about not for religion's sake, but for gain, did not wish to be hateful to sinners.

Now the body is not for fornication, but for the Lord.

Now he returns to the previous sense: And the Lord for the body. What does "the Lord for the body" mean? Understand: he will bestow immortality on it when raised; for the body, dedicated to God, will be rewarded with a spiritual gift by the merit of its leader, that is, of the mind.

God has both raised up the Lord, and will raise us up also by his own power.

It is the same sense, which he wished to confirm by the example of the Lord's resurrection; for the power of God is Christ, by which he will raise us up, and the Lord himself also. He said this because the Lord himself raised up his own body, as the Lord himself says: Destroy this temple, and in three days I will raise it up. But he spoke of the temple of his body.

Know you not that your bodies are the members of Christ?

Our bodies are members of Christ, but as belonging to the new man, who is created according to God; because he himself is the head of the Church. Shall I then take the members of Christ, and make them the members of a harlot? God forbid. He says "God forbid," because members joined to a harlot cease to be members of Christ.

Or know you not, that he who is joined to a harlot, is made one body?

He says this, because he who mingles himself with contamination becomes one with him with whom he mingles himself. For fornication makes both one; so that as they are one in nature, so also they are one in defilement. For, he says, the two shall be in one flesh. It is clear that, since woman is from man, both are one flesh.

But he who is joined to the Lord, is one spirit.

Because in those who act well, the Spirit of God is common to both God and men.

Flee fornication.

He rightly admonishes that fornication is to be fled, through which the sons of God become sons of the devil. Every sin that a man commits, is outside the body. Because although the other sins are also generated through the body, they do not, however, make the soul so bound and liable to carnal concupiscence, as does the use of lust, mingling the soul with the very body, acting in the work of carnal fornication; because the soul is so glued to the body, that in that very moment it is not permitted to man to think of or intend anything else; because the very submersion and absorption of lust and carnal concupiscence takes the mind itself captive. Hence it is added: But he that commits fornication, sins against his own body. He shows this to be the gravest sin; because by it the whole body perishes; whereas in other sins a portion perishes, not the whole. For the whole body is man and woman; because woman is a portion of man.

Whoever commits any other sin, sins outside himself; but the fornicator sins against his own flesh.

Come now, if he should end his life by a noose, or slay himself by the sword, he does not seem to sin against his own body, but against his soul, to which he does violence. But to fornicate is a bodily crime, which touches both body and soul: for it is not without desire of the flesh, since the flesh too has its own proper motion, that the soul desires so as to sin against the flesh; although without the soul nothing can be done. Through this, then, that he sins against the flesh, which is of himself (for he referred it to its origin), he is said to sin against his own body; that he may cease from fornication, as it were sparing himself.

To Novatian, however, he who fornicates does not seem to sin against his own body, but against Christ's; for he pronounces this otherwise, so as to say that even he who fornicates sins against the Holy Spirit: for the reason that he is cut off from the Church. This can be established by no reasoning; for the body of Christ is not one or two Christians, but all, and each individual is a member. How then does he who fornicates sin against the body of Christ, since he does not contaminate all? For if it were so, as it seems to Novatian, all other sins would be outside God, and fornication alone would be a sin against God. Even he who goes to idols would not sin against God, nor he who denies in persecution; because every sin that a man commits is outside the body of Christ, as it seems to him.

But if he should wish to pronounce this otherwise, so as to deny that any sin is outside the body of Christ, he would be compelled to say that whatever sin a man commits, he sins against God, and against the Holy Spirit; so that both the thief, and the perjurer, and the liar would be said to sin against the Holy Spirit. And how is that saying of the Lord to be understood: All sins and blasphemies shall be forgiven unto men: but he that shall sin against the Holy Spirit, it shall not be forgiven him, neither here, nor in the world to come? It appears clearly that, apart from other sins, there is another sin, which is called sin against the Holy Spirit.

Again, it seems to some that he who fornicates is said to sin against his own body

because he is a member of the Church, and, defiling himself, sins against the Church, whose member he is. But if he is a member of the Church, it should be said to him, when he fornicates, that he sins not against himself, but against the Church. But further the Apostle says, that he who fornicates, by that in which he trespasses against his own portion, sins against his own body.

Or know you not, that your bodies are the temple of the Holy Spirit, who is in you, whom you have from God?

Above he called it the temple of God; here the temple of the Holy Spirit; because in substance the Spirit is what God is. He said this in order that we may keep our bodies uncontaminated, so that the Holy Spirit may be able to dwell there.

you are not your own; for you are bought with a great price.

It is clear that he who is bought is not of his own will, but of him by whom he was bought, so that he does not do his own will, but that of the other. And because we have been bought with a dear price, we ought all the more to serve our Lord; lest, being offended, he give us back to the death from which he redeemed us. For how dear a price did he pay for us, that he should give his own blood for us? Glorify and bear God in your body. This is to glorify and bear God in the body, that we may walk according to his law; for through his own law he himself is seen to be in us. Yet to bear God is this: to show the image of God in things well done.

Now concerning the things whereof you wrote to me: it is good for a man not to touch a woman.

Agitated by the perverse opinions of the false apostles, who taught, through hypocrisy, that marriage should be scorned, so that they might seem purer than the rest, they were asking this of the Apostle through their letter; for since they were not delighted with this opinion, passing over the rest, they ask only this. To whom nevertheless he answered that it is good indeed not to touch a woman, although they did not assert it simply.

Yet because of fornications

that is, lest anything against the law be committed, since what the law does not forbid is sometimes avoided; let every man have his own wife, and let every woman have her own husband. For those who seek a shortcut are wont to err. For how could it be that these men should abstain from their own wives, whom he found in such great vices?

Therefore he does not permit this, lest, abstaining from what is licit, they should presume upon what is not permitted, as the Manichaeans do.

Let the husband render the debt to his wife, and the wife also in like manner to the husband.

They are subject to one another in this matter; so that, since they are one body, their will also may be one in the law of nature. The wife has not power of her own body, but the husband: and likewise also the husband has not power of his own body, but the wife. He says this, that it is not lawful for either husband or wife to give his or her body to another; for they are debtors to one another in this matter, lest occasion for sin be given.

Defraud not one another.

He says this, that they should agree together in the matter of marriage, lest disagreement generate fornication. Except by consent, for a time—that is, that they abstain by agreement, for the sake of giving thanks.

That you may give yourselves to prayer.

For although one ought to pray without ceasing, this meditation indeed being to be practiced every day; nevertheless, that they may attend to prayer, he directs that time be set apart for this, with intervals inserted, for gaining favor with the Lord; for that he may show mercy, one must entreat more purely. Although marriages are pure, yet even from lawful things one must abstain, that prayer may more easily be brought to effect. For also in the Law, those wishing to be sanctified, among other things, abstained also from raisins by the Lord's command, that they might be more holy. For when a man does not touch even what is permitted, he shows that he wishes to receive what he prays for.

And come together again, that same.

Since he gives counsel to married couples that after days of prayer they ought to return to natural use: That Satan tempt you not for your incontinency; he admonishes that, intervals of days having intervened, they should abstain; lest occasion be given to the devil, as Peter the apostle says: Behold the devil, as a roaring lion, goes about, seeking whom he may devour. For if a wife is taken for the sake of begetting children, not much time seems to be allotted to the very act itself; because both feast days, and days of procession, and the very reasoning of conception and childbirth according to the Law, show that these times ought to be times of cessation.

But I speak this by indulgence, not by commandment.

It is clear that he gives this counsel in order to exclude fornication, not to close the way for those tending to a better life. For I would that all men were even as myself. As far, then, as concerns a kindly and solicitous teacher, he wished all such, if it could be so, to be as himself. What manner of man he was, he soon shows in what follows: But every man has his proper gift of God, one after this manner, and another after that; that is, each has the gift of God according to his own vow, so that, if he wills, by the very nod of God, he may attain the possibility. Therefore no one ought to be constrained; lest, forbidden what is lawful, he admit what is unlawful: but let each choose for himself what he will follow.

But I say to the unmarried and to widows: it is good for them if they so continue, even as I.

He would not say, "It is good for the unmarried to be as I," unless he were unimpaired in body. Nor would he say: I would that all men were as myself; for if he had had a wife, and said this, he would have refused to be a virgin. But God forbid; for from boyhood he so served, that he had no desire for this thing; since indeed as a young man he was anticipated by the grace of God. After he had said that each one has his proper gift from God, he shows in what matter it is better to be more inclined; because a man is helped in that which he is seen to seek with eager desire of mind.

But if they do not contain themselves, let them marry.

In this matter he wishes them to strive, that they may contain themselves. But if they see that they cannot persevere under the impulse of the flesh, because they are not more ready in this very thing, so as to be helped by God (for God helps him whom he sees striving with his whole strength): let them marry, if they fear to burn. For perhaps they will be able to attain this afterward; for, the impediment having been laid aside, the will restores itself with more robust strength.

For it is better to marry than to burn. He did not say, For it is better to marry than to burn, as though it were good to burn, and therefore marriage were better: but he followed common usage. For we are accustomed to say: It is better to make a profit than a loss. To burn, however, is to be driven or conquered by desires; for when the will consents to the heat of the flesh, one burns: for to suffer desires and not be conquered belongs to an illustrious and perfect man.

But to those who are joined in matrimony I declare, not I, but the Lord.

After he has spoken to the unmarried and to widows, he addresses those who are joined in matrimony, with the very mouth of the Lord: that the wife should not depart from her husband; but if she should depart, that she remain unmarried. This is the Apostle's counsel, that if she has departed on account of the bad conduct of her husband, she should now remain unmarried.

Or be reconciled to her husband.

But if, he says, she cannot contain herself, because she does not wish to struggle against the flesh, let her be reconciled to her husband; for it is not permitted to a woman to marry, if she has put away her husband on account of fornication, or apostasy, or if, driven by unlawful wantonness, she seeks the use of a husband; because the inferior does not altogether have the use of that law which the stronger has. If, however, the husband apostatizes, or seeks to pervert the use of his wife; the woman can neither marry another, nor return to him. And that the husband should not put away his wife. It is understood, however: except for the cause of fornication.

And therefore he did not add, as he did concerning the woman: But if she departs, let her remain so; because it is permitted to a husband to take a wife, if he has put away a wife who has sinned; because the man is not bound by the law in the same way as the woman; for the man is the head of the woman.

But to the rest I say, not the Lord.

He said this to show what the Lord himself commanded with his own mouth, and what he has granted to this one's authority; because through this man too the Lord speaks. For he says: Do you seek a proof of him who speaks in me, Christ?

If any brother has an unbelieving wife, and she consents to dwell with him, let him not put her away.

And if any woman has an unbelieving husband, and he consents to dwell with her, let her not leave her husband.

He said this, because in those beginnings, when both were of course pagans, it would happen that one of them believed: and because the unbelievers dreaded the worship of God, and likewise the believers dreaded the contamination of their past error; therefore he instructs that, if they were content to dwell with the unchanged party, they should also be content to be faithful with them.

For the unbelieving husband is sanctified by the believing wife, and the unbelieving wife is sanctified by the believing husband. He shows that they have the benefit of good will; because they do not have a horror of the name of Christ: and it pertains to the protection of the household, in which the sign of the cross is made, by which death was conquered; for it is a sanctification.

Otherwise your children would be unclean.

Their children would be unclean, if they were to put away those willing to dwell with them, and join themselves to others; for they would be adulterers, and on this account their children too would be spurious; therefore unclean. But now they are holy. They are holy; because they are born of lawful marriages: and because they are born under the reverence of the Creator, from the more favorable part. For just as whatever is done through dedication to idols is unclean; so whatever is done under the profession of God the Creator is holy.

But if the unbeliever departs, let him depart.

He safeguards the purpose of religion, by commanding that Christians not abandon marriages: but if the unbeliever departs out of hatred of God, the faithful one will not be guilty of a dissolved marriage; for the cause of God is greater than that of marriage. For a brother or sister is not subject to servitude in such cases.

That is, reverence for marriage is not owed to one who dreads the author of marriage; for a marriage is not ratified which is without devotion to God; and on this account it is not a sin for the one who is put away for God's sake, if he joins himself to another. For the insult to the Creator dissolves the right of marriage with respect to the one who is left behind, so that he is not accused when joined to another. But the unbeliever who departs is known to sin both against God and against marriage; because he did not wish to hold marriage under devotion to God. And so fidelity to the marriage need not be kept toward him, because he departed for this very reason: that he might not hear that the God of Christians is the author of marriage.

For if Ezra caused unbelieving wives or husbands to be put away, so that God might become propitious, and not be angry, if they took others of their own race; for it was not commanded to them in such a way that, having dismissed these, they should by no means take others: how much more, if the unbeliever has departed, will the faithful one have free choice, if he wishes to marry a husband of his own faith? For that ought not to be imputed to the marriage, which was done outside the decree of God: but when afterward one comes to know and grieve that he has erred, he corrects himself, so that he may merit pardon. But if both have believed, they confirm the marriage through the knowledge of God.

But God has called us in peace.

This is true, because one ought not to quarrel with the one who departs; because he departs out of hatred of God, and on this account he is not even to be regarded as worthy.

For how do you know, woman, whether you will save your husband? Or how do you know, man, whether you will save your wife? He says this, because perhaps those who do not dread the name of Christ can come to believe.

Except as God has apportioned to each.

The Lord has apportioned to each when he shall be saved, that is, he knows when he can believe, and he waits for him. And here he teaches that they are to be awaited, and that no offense should be taken on their account, because their hope must be preserved; for if they themselves depart, this must be overlooked by the believers.

Let each one walk as God has called him.

That is, that if one who believes is joined in marriage, neither the man nor the woman should abandon it: but let him remain so, whether Jew or Greek.

As I teach in all the churches.

That he may persuade them that he does not deal with these differently than with the rest; so that when they hear that the rest are taught this same thing concerning this faith, they may more readily follow. For one is easily inclined, if he sees a companion agreeing.

Was anyone called circumcised?

Let him not bring in uncircumcision. This is what he said, that he should walk as he was called; so that a Jew made a Christian should not perhaps think himself unworthy because he does not have uncircumcision, giving glory to uncircumcision. Was anyone called in uncircumcision? Let him not be circumcised. So that a Gentile who is called should not think that he must be circumcised, because he hears that those called sons of Abraham are preferred by that means.

For they are not preferred because they are circumcised, but by the merit of Abraham, whose sons they are in either case, if they believe: if not, they will be worse than the Gentiles; for it is worse to have been something and not to be it, than never to have been it at all.

Circumcision is nothing, and uncircumcision is nothing.

It is clear that it neither hurts nor helps. But the keeping of the commandments of God, that is, faith, makes God one's own, if it is approved by good works.

Let each one remain in that calling in which he was called.

This confirms what he said above. Were you called a slave? Let it not be a care to you: but if you can become free, use it rather. He exhorts that one, serving well from fear of God a fleshly master, should make himself worthy of freedom, lest perhaps hearing: Were you called a slave?

Let it not be a care to you; he should become more negligent regarding good actions toward his fleshly master, and the teaching of Christ be blasphemed, and he not merit God either, who, serving well in these earthly matters, lays up merit for himself with God: because the Lord said: He who is faithful in the least, is faithful also in much.

For he who was called a slave in the Lord, is the Lord's freedman. For having been rescued from sins, which truly prove men to be slaves, he becomes a freedman; for he is altogether a slave who acts imprudently, just as it also pleased the ancients, who called all wise men free, but called all imprudent men slaves. Whence also Solomon: Free men, he says, shall serve a wise slave. This one, then, who believes, even if he is a slave for a time; because he does a prudent thing, in that he believes in Christ, he becomes the Lord's freedman.

If, then, sins make men slaves, just as Ham the son of Noah was made a slave by reason of sin and imprudence; when someone receives remission of sins, he is made a freedman. Likewise he who was called free, is a slave of Christ. He has advanced from being free to becoming a slave of Christ: for he was free from God, which is the greatest crime: and therefore, having lost that bitter and contrary freedom, he has been allotted a condition that would benefit him, just as the Lord says: Take my yoke upon you, for it is easy: and my burden, for it is light. Thus he cut away pride, and made unity; so that neither should the slave, from shame of his condition, think himself despised, nor should the free man, puffed up with elation of mind, set himself above the slave.

You were bought with a price, do not become slaves of men.

This is true, because we were bought so dearly that we could have been redeemed by no one, except by Christ, who is rich above all. He, then, who is bought at a price, ought all the more to serve; so that he may in some measure repay his buyer. Bought by God, then, that is by Christ, they ought not to be slaves of men. But these are slaves of men, who subject themselves to human superstitions. The Apostle, however, is recalling what he rebuked at the head of the epistle, in that they were saying: I am of Paul: and another: I am of Apollos. Yet he provided the point that Christ must be confessed as God; when he shows that slaves of Christ should not be called slaves of a man.

Let each brother, in that in which he was called, remain therein with God.

This is what he said above, which, that he might fully commend it, he repeats.

Now concerning virgins I have no commandment of the Lord.

He responds to this concerning what they had written, as he said above: Now concerning the things about which you wrote to me. But I give counsel, as one who has obtained mercy from the Lord to be faithful. He denies that he received a commandment concerning virgins; because the author of marriage could not command something contrary to marriage, lest he accuse his own former act. But counsel, he says, I give: not as though it were displeasing, nor as though it were colored with flattery; because he obtained grace for this purpose, that he might be fit to give salutary counsels.

I think, then, that this is good on account of the present necessity; because it is best for a man to be so.

He calls it good to remain a virgin.

And that he might show this more fully, he says, on account of the present necessity; because it is best, so that between good and best nothing might be recognized as so excellent and useful as virginity; because he teaches that virginity is not only more commendable in the sight of God, but also as regards the present life, since it knows not the necessities of time which marriage suffers; and it is ignorant of the sorrows of childbirth, and likewise of the bereavements of children. That he might therefore urge them to embrace this, he teaches that these women who have loved it gain profit from the calamities of present necessity; so that, learning not only that this holds a better place with God, but also in the present life, they might seek after it with all diligence. For there is one thing alone that is laborious: that it should conquer the affection of the flesh; in all else it is free.

For because the flesh is such in its origin and nature that its use seems pleasant and its affection sweet; therefore to overcome this is no small glory.

Are you bound to a wife?

Do not seek release. These are counsels of remedies; for he says that no one ought to be released from a wife, except for the cause of fornication. For often men, putting away their own wives, deceive others under the cover of continence, their resolve growing cold. But if, being so situated, he wishes to live better with his wife, let him exhort her, that they may live more purely without scandal. Are you released from a wife? Do not seek a wife. So that, knowing this to be more acceptable to God, and free from necessity, he should not seek a wife; yet so that he should abstain from others.

Otherwise, what does it profit to suppress the desire of the flesh

that is, to spurn a lawful thing, and lie subject to unlawful ones?

But if you take a wife, you have not sinned.

He certainly does not sin, because he does what is permitted. But if he has scorned it, he lays up merit and a crown for himself. For it is a mark of great patience, not to touch that which is not forbidden. And if a virgin marries, she has not sinned. She does not sin, because on this account she is free before God. Yet such persons will have tribulations of the flesh. That is, even if they are free from sin; yet in this life they will have tribulations, groanings of the womb, the raising of children, food, clothing, dowries, sickness, the running of a household, the wife's necessity, the husband's dominion. But I spare you. He spares them when he urges them rather to those things which exclude the tribulations of the flesh and the anxieties mentioned.

He can thus seem to spare, when he permits, and does not contradict those willing, which he shows to be burdensome.

This therefore I say, brothers, the time is shortened, and what remains is little. Saying that the time is shortened and little remains, he signified that the end of the world was imminent: although he knew that times still remained. But he ought not to have written otherwise, for the sake of those who would read these words when very little time remained; lest, while the day of judgment were always thought to be far off, it either should not be feared, or should be reckoned false. But that saying, while it is still far off, that it is imminent, is of great profit; for it strikes terror, to lead men to a better life. Finally, here in the present, how anxious are those who have matters pending before judges, when the day of the trial is said to be imminent? This is what he echoes here, which he says elsewhere: as deceivers, and yet true.

That even those who have wives should be as though not having them.

For since the end of the world is at hand, they ought not to be anxious for begetting, nor given over to that very use itself: so that, being more inclined and watchful in divine works, trained in attention to the Law, they might fight back when battle is imminent. For there will be tribulations, such as never were, and many will fall into the snare of the devil: in short, none of us wants these things to occur in his own time, fearing the tribulations foretold by the Savior. Therefore, as we wish for ourselves, let us also counsel others; that we abstain from the begetting of many children, being more subject to prayer and to the service of God, foreseeing the day of judgment; lest we too be unprepared through the encumbrances of present necessity, and lest others fall into what we fear.

Even from things lawful, then, he wishes the faithful to abstain; so that they may appear not only innocent, but even glorious: for to pass by things permitted is a mark of the greatest virtue; and not to desire things forbidden is not far removed from it.

those who weep, as though not weeping; for knowing that the end of the world is at hand, that consolation will soon come to those who perhaps are oppressed for the justice of God, let them console themselves among themselves with this hope. And those who rejoice, as though not rejoicing; for in the present, let those who rejoice know that mourning will soon come, namely to those who rejoice in the world, being in doubt about the judgment of God.

And those who buy, as though not possessing; for those who buy, believing that little time remains to the world, should so act that they do not spend all their care on a thing soon to perish: but rather let them take care of their soul, which they know to be eternal.

those who use this world, as though not using it: that is, that they should not presume upon this use; because it will soon perish, the world collapsing.

For the figure of this world passes away. Because he said the world will come to an end, he shows that its figure passes away; and that this is the end, that is, that not its substance passes away, but its form. And so if the form of the world will perish, there is no doubt at all that everything which is in the world will perish. It passes away for this reason, because the world grows old day by day.

I wish you to be without anxiety.

For with worldly anxiety diminished, one keeps watch more intently in the things of God. But how we can be without anxiety, he shows by saying: He who is without a wife is anxious about the things of the Lord. For with the anxiety of the marital matter cut away, which alone in the world is heavier than the rest, the mind is instructed for the winning of God's favor: provided, however, that the mind, by this hope, strips itself of these troubles, in order to serve God the more.

But he who is with a wife is anxious about the things of this world, how he may please his wife.

For care of a wife and thought of children is a thought of the world: for among other things men are sometimes led to allow deeds that ought to be punished; lest they offend their wives, as Zorobabel, one of the three chamberlains of Artaxerxes, relates: for great is the bitterness in a house where the wife is sad.

He is therefore said to be divided, because he cannot both attend to divine matters, and do the will of his wife.

The woman and the virgin are divided.

Divided not indeed by nature, but by act; for we read in Numbers that women were called virgins The anxiety of the woman, then, is one thing, that of the virgin another; yet when "woman" is said, it is uncertain what it signifies, unless the meaning follows: but when "virgin" is said, the expression is plain.

Here the Apostle placed "virgin" after "woman," so that "woman" might signify one who is not a virgin: for by this he wished to show the virgin free from the vexations and labors which a woman joined to a husband suffers.

For she who is not married is anxious about the things of the Lord, that she may be holy both in body and spirit: that is, in mind; for since, through hope of heavenly things, she does not take up anxiety for husband and children, she thinks about the Lord, how she may keep her purpose devoted to God, provided that, in a body free of worldly things, her mind, casting off earthly things, is zealous for heavenly ones. For it is the mind that either sanctifies or defiles the body. For what does it profit to have a clean body, and a defiled soul: since by the merit of the soul the body is either honored or condemned?

But she who is married is anxious about the things of this world, how she may please her husband.

For, bound by the marital law, she is anxious how she may fulfill the right of marital duty, being subject to worldly necessities.

But this I say for your own benefit; not that I may cast a snare upon you: but for that which is honorable.

Since to some it seems harsh and burdensome, what is more useful or better, on account of the habit of temporal use; therefore, after giving the reason, he exhorts, with the affection of charity, simply saying that this is more useful, this more honorable. It is honorable, because it is holy and clean: but useful, because it is more worthy before God, and light in the world. What then shall we say? If virgins think about God, and those joined to husbands think about the world, what hope is left for those who marry, before God?

If indeed it is so, there is doubt about their salvation: for we see virgins thinking about the world, and those joined in marriage zealous for the Lord's works. To those virgins, holiness will not be imputed by God, and for those marriages there will be reward before God; because although they were bound by earthly and fleshly bonds, they took pains to merit some immortal reward for the future. But to those virgins, not only will virginity not be imputed, but they will also be subjected to punishment, who, under the cover of a better hope, occupying their life and conduct with worldly care and anxiety, have made themselves slothful toward doing the works of God; just as the prophet Jeremiah says: Cursed is he who does the work of God negligently. These are they of whom he says in another epistle: Having indeed a form of piety, but denying its power.

But the Apostle speaks to those who, with wondrous devotion, desire to obey the heavenly precepts, showing and teaching by what shortcut one goes more swiftly to God

because he who wishes to remain a virgin for God's sake, knowing what reward he can receive who abstains from what is lawful, in order to become better; at the same time despises all impediments of the flesh, not unaware that these are the things that hold back the step of the runner as though with the burdens of fetters.

But if any man think that he behaves himself unseemly toward his virgin, if she be past the flower of her age, and it must so be, let him do what he will, he sins not, if she marry.

Since above he had thus urged, with reason given, the keeping of virginity and continence; so that, almost in comparison to them, marriages might seem useless and to be cast aside: now, lest he be thought to be forbidding marriages, he shows that a virgin does not sin, if she marries; but that she undertakes a matter of the greatest labor, and one which has no reward before God, just as it has no penalty: for he wishes Christians to be better in every respect. If, then, some woman is in the desire of marriage, already mature for its use, it is better that she marry publicly according to the law that is granted, than that she do it secretly and shamefully, and be put to shame in it.

But he who stands firm in his heart, having no necessity, but having power over his own will, and has determined this in his heart, to keep his virgin, does well.

He says this, so that he who has a virgin whose mind is not set on marriage, should keep her: and not force upon her the kindling of marriage, whom he sees to have no will to marry. If favors are to be granted, how much more are they not to be taken away?

So then he who gives his virgin in marriage does well.

He does well, because what he does is permitted. And he who does not give her in marriage, does better. He does better, because he both lays up merit for her before God, and frees her from the anxiety of the world.

A woman is bound by the law as long as her husband lives.

He pursues this, in order to teach that a woman, even if she has been cast off by her husband, has no license to marry. But if her husband is dead, she is freed.

This too pertains to the aforementioned causes; so that he may show how blessed the virgin is, since she is subject to none but God alone. For she seems to conquer natural subjection, when what has been humbled by nature, she raises up. Let her marry whom she wishes, only in the Lord; that is, whomever she shall have thought fit for herself, let her marry him; because unwilling marriages tend to have bad outcomes. Only in the Lord, that is, that she marry without suspicion of shame, and marry a husband of her own religion: this is to marry in the Lord.

But she will be more blessed, if she so remains, according to my counsel.

When he says above, let her marry, he speaks according to natural law; although the first marriages are from God, but second marriages are permitted.

Indeed, first marriages are celebrated sublimely under the blessing of God: but second marriages even in the present life lack glory; they are, however, permitted on account of incontinence: and because younger widows tend to fall into it; and on this account he permits second marriages. But because it is better that she contain herself; that she may be more worthy in the future, he gives counsel by spiritual reasoning as the preferable course, that she contain herself. For I think that I also have the Spirit of God; so that he might show his counsel to be ratified and provident, with humility of speech he commends this with a lofty sense.

Now concerning things sacrificed to idols, we know that we all have knowledge.

Now he is about to speak of knowledge: what this knowledge is, he does not say at once, but shows it in what follows, saying that an idol is nothing. Knowledge puffs up. It is clear that one who has knowledge glories in this very thing, if not outwardly, because he is prudent, at least within himself. For this is the nature of knowledge, that it should glory in itself, therefore it puffs up. But charity edifies. And so knowledge is then great, and useful to oneself, if it is humbled by charity, so that it may grow the more. For it is tempered by love, so that it is not too undiluted, and does not intoxicate the one who has it, so that he exalts himself. For just as wine untempered by a mixture of water estranges the mind; so also knowledge makes proud, unless it has been tempered.

For all things alone are unpleasant and harmful; because not even bread alone is eaten well, nor are the rest of foods pleasing without admixture, but harmful; therefore charity edifies. Charity itself, though called by one name, consists nevertheless of many things; for it cannot exist without patience, nor without humility, nor without simplicity of heart. These, then, were puffed up by their knowledge that an idol is nothing, who, against the salvation of their unskilled brothers, ate the meats of sacrifices, knowing that it is lawful to eat meat; and because an idol is nothing, therefore one who eats is not contaminated. These were a scandal to the brothers, not having charity before their eyes; because it was of more importance to hold meat in contempt, than to cause a scandal to the brothers. For their knowledge was destroying the minds of the unskilled brothers, who thought there was some grace present there at the idol; when they saw the more skilled brothers being present there, and not shrinking from it.

Therefore he says: Charity edifies; so that, being zealous for the salvation of the brothers, they should not use the laws of knowledge there, lest they cause a scandal to them.

But if any man think that he knows anything, he has not yet known as he ought to know.

He shows that these very persons who glory in knowledge have not known as they ought to have known. For since they do not pursue charity, which is the mother of all good things, they do not know as they ought. That knowledge, then, may be able to bear fruit, it ought to subject itself to charity.

But if any man love God, the same is known by him.

This man loves God, who for charity's sake tempers his knowledge; that he may benefit the brother, for whom Christ died.

Concerning foods, then, sacrificed to idols.

Now he handles the matter itself, so as to show by reasoning that knowledge, with charity despised, not only does not profit, but even harms.

We know that an idol is nothing, and that there is no God but one. This is true; for among Christians there is one God.

Although there are some that are called gods and lords, whether in heaven or on earth.

For among the pagans both the sun and moon and the other stars are called heavenly gods: on earth they call Apollo, Aesculapius, Hercules, Minerva gods and lords.

Yet to us there is one God, the Father, from whom are all things, and we in him.

For all things whatsoever exist, wherever they exist, exist from him. But when he says: And we in him, he distinguished us from the others, who, although they are from him, yet are not in him, since they do not yet believe. And one Lord Jesus, through whom are all things, and we through him.

For all things were indeed created from the Father, but through the Son. But when he says: And we through him, he signifies that we have been reformed through him, through whom we had been created, in the knowledge of God; because, having been made through him along with the rest, after the stupor of the mind and ignorance, we have come, through him, to know the mystery of the one God. He said, then, one God the Father, and one Lord Jesus his Son; so that, since God cannot fail to be Lord, likewise the Lord too may be understood to be God, so as to demonstrate that God and Lord are one, preserving the manner of a single principle.

But knowledge is not in all.

That is, not all believers know the mystery of the one God; therefore some among those who believe think there is some divinity in idols. For some, still with a conscience of the idol, eat what is sacrificed as though to an idol.

For some of the people still, with veneration of the idol, were eating of the things sacrificed, as though some divinity were present there. And their conscience, being weak, is defiled. The conscience is stained, if it is weak with respect to God.

But food does not commend us to God.

This is true, because we shall not therefore please God, if we eat all things: nor shall we offend, if we scorn some things. For neither, if we eat, shall we abound; nor, if we do not eat, shall we lack. For if the food of sacrifices is spurned, there will certainly be no lack of something to eat; but if it is taken, there will be no abundance, such that nothing more would be sought: and on this account it is to be rejected; because one does not live without it, either, and it is a scandal to the brothers.

But take heed, lest perhaps this liberty of yours become a stumbling-block to the weak.

This is: lest, because you say it is lawful for you to eat meat from the sacrifice, on the ground that you know that an idol is nothing, you should generate offense for the brothers who do not yet know that an idol is nothing.

For if any man see him who has knowledge sitting at meat in an idol's temple, shall not his conscience, since it is weak, be emboldened to eat those things which are sacrificed to idols?

He said this, because someone, seeing a skilled brother, having been invited, reclining in the idol's temple, eating the meats of the sacrifices, thinks there is some grace present there, and himself begins to eat the meats of the sacrifices too, not with that conscience by which the other, by reason of his skill, knows that an idol is nothing, but with that conscience by which he thinks there is a divine power present there; since he sees the skilled brother eating there, and not shrinking from it.

shall the weak brother perish, for whom Christ died, through your knowledge?

The weak one will perish, if he eats of the things sacrificed against the faith of the one God: which words indeed are as it were the words of one angry, and showing what evil knowledge can beget, if it has not been tempered by charity. Through your knowledge: that is, your skill kills him; when he sees done by you what he understands otherwise.

And you become an occasion of death for a brother, whom Christ, in order to redeem him, allowed himself to be crucified.

And on this account he teaches that sometimes one must dissemble knowledge, for charity's sake; because without doubt the salvation of a brother is of more worth than food: for it is indeed lawful, but not expedient. This will be to have known, as one ought to know.

But sinning thus against the brothers, and wounding their weak conscience, you sin against Christ.

For when they are not zealous for the charity by which Christ freed us, they sin in Christ, not against Christ; because to sin against Christ is to deny Christ: but "in Christ" means in those things which are Christ's. Just as he who is under the Law is said to sin in the Law; so too those who are under Christ are said to sin in Christ.

Wherefore, if food scandalizes my brother, I will never eat meat, lest I scandalize my brother.

He teaches that one must be so zealous for charity, that things lawful should be reckoned as though unlawful, lest they be an obstacle to a brother. For how great an evil it is, not to sin through unlawful things, and yet to give offense through things that are permitted; so that the Law should be kept regarding unlawful things, and not be observed regarding lawful things, while they are eaten inconsiderately? For the Law permitted the things it granted in such a way that there is nevertheless a measure which they must keep. It is certainly lawful to have a wife, but if she has committed fornication, she must be put away: so too it is lawful to eat meat, but if it has been offered to idols, it must be refused.

Am I not an apostle?

Am I not free? Have I not seen Jesus our Lord? When he seems to deny, he affirms; for he speaks in anger. He proves himself an apostle, because he was sent to the Gentiles, the Lord saying to him: I will send you to the Gentiles. But he shows himself free, because he coveted nothing of anyone's, nor did he teach with flattery. But he saw Jesus our Lord, while he was praying in the temple at Jerusalem. Are not you my work in the Lord? They are therefore his work, because he himself planted them in the Lord, evangelizing to them the word of God for a year and six months.

If to others I am not an apostle, yet to you I am; because by Jewish believers, who nevertheless kept the Law, he was denied to be an apostle.

For he was already teaching that circumcision ought not to be practiced, nor the sabbath kept: but while the other apostles, on account of scandal, were dissembling on this matter, this man seemed to teach otherwise; therefore he was denied to be an apostle by these; but he was an apostle to those who had seen in him the marks of power. For the seal of my apostleship are you in the Lord; for by his preaching, they were converted from idols to the faith of the one God.

My defense to those who question me is this.

Now he begins to plead the case which he had already set forth above, saying: All things are lawful to me, but I will not be brought under the power of any. Food for the belly, and the belly for foods. So then he begins this case thus, that he says: My defense to those who question me is this. And what it is he adds, saying:

Have we not power to eat and to drink?

This is what he had said: All things are lawful to me. Have we not power to lead about a woman, as also the other apostles, and the brothers of the Lord, and Cephas? He added, "and Cephas," for this reason: because, though he was first among the apostles, he did not refuse the expenses offered to him. Cephas is himself Simon Peter. For women, out of desire for the Lord's teaching and eagerness for the virtues, used to follow the apostles, ministering to them both expenses and services, just as they also followed the Savior, ministering to him from their own resources.

Or is it only I and Barnabas who have not power to do this?

That is, we have power to do it, but we are unwilling. Yet in place of "receiving" he says "doing," so as to speak more decently. And to confirm this, he adduces examples, saying:

Who ever serves as a soldier at his own expense?

Who plants a vineyard and does not eat of its fruit?

Who feeds a flock of sheep and does not partake of their milk?

Do I speak these things according to man? That is, am I following human opinion? Does not the Law also say the same? He has taught that the aforesaid testimonies agree with divine documents, so as to show that it was not without cause that he was unwilling to receive expenses from them, since by so many examples he shows that both giving and receiving are proper.

For in the Law it is written: You shall not muzzle the ox that treads out the grain. Is it for oxen that God is concerned? Let us settle this briefly for the present; for in the prophet Jonah it is written: I will not spare the city in which dwell more than a hundred and twenty thousand persons, and much cattle. And the Psalmist says: Men and beasts you will save, O Lord. How then does God not care for oxen and cattle?

But God cares not for oxen and cattle for their own sake, but for our sake, for whose benefit they were made; therefore he cares for us, not for them.

Or rather, he says, it was said for our sake: for it was written for our sake. For by figure all things said pass over to us. Because he who plows and threshes in hope ought to receive the fruit of his hope. This is true, because one labors in this hope, that he may obtain the fruit.

If we have sown spiritual things for you, is it a great matter if we reap your carnal things?

He does not say it is a great thing, nor that it is equal, if those who preach the gospel of the kingdom of God, and feed the Church with heavenly food, should receive the sustenance of the body; that in handing over things eternal, they should receive things temporal.

If others share this power over you, do not we more?

For if those who are not your fathers through the gospel, and do not have the same affection toward you, have the ability to receive, how much more we? And it is to be understood: your apostles; for Barnabas too was an apostle. But we have not used this power; rather we endure all things, lest we give any hindrance to the gospel of Christ. Long concealed, he now discloses his meaning; for he shows that he was unwilling to receive expenses, though it was lawful, lest the vigor of evangelical authority should grow slack. For the false apostles were flattering sinners, wishing to receive; so that those subject to them did not seem to themselves to be sinning: but since this practice was contrary to evangelical discipline, he here refuses to receive, that he might freely reprove, lest he be found among their number.

For in order that the rule of Christian discipline might remain intact, he made lawful things unlawful for himself; because they, through license, were giving offense.

Do you not know that they who work in the sanctuary live off the sanctuary, and they who serve the altar partake with the altar?

By "sanctuary" he signifies the law of the Gentiles, but by "altar" that of the Jews. For thus the Lord decreed through Moses, that from the things that were offered the priests should take a portion.

So also the Lord Jesus ordained that they who proclaim the gospel should live by the gospel.

Therefore God, through Moses, did not follow the pattern of the Gentiles; but natural reason itself has this, that a man should live from that in which he labors. This rule, then, he decreed according to nature itself and human custom.

Yet, adding these things further to the sum, he strengthens the case; so that what he commends by so many testimonies might not seem light or burdensome: and yet he does not wish it to profit himself, lest he should lessen his freedom to reprove.

But I have used none of these things.

After showing in many ways that it is lawful to receive, yet that he himself has no need of it—for it is harmful to receive from those who are sinning, as I have mentioned above. But I have not written these things that it should be so done in my case; for it is better for me to die. No one shall make my glorying void. He calls it his glory, if the strictness of the gospel remains intact: and he chose rather to die than to violate the rights of the gospel, knowing that this is more profitable to him for future salvation.

For he refuses to have this due service rendered to him by them, lest through this they gain confidence in wrongdoing.

For if I preach the gospel, it is not to me a matter of glorying; for necessity lies upon me. As the Lord says: When you have done all the things that I command you, say: We are unprofitable servants; what we ought to do, we have done. For woe is to me, he says, if I do not preach the gospel. For a servant sent by his master does, even unwillingly, what is commanded him: otherwise he is necessarily bound with stripes. Thus Moses too was sent unwillingly to Pharaoh; and Jonah was compelled to preach to the Ninevites.

For if I do this willingly, I have a reward. It is clear that no one receives a reward for a thing which he does unwillingly. For if he does it voluntarily, he is worthy of reward, because he agrees with his master; and what is done by will is done better.

But if unwillingly, a dispensation has been entrusted to me.

Nor is this obscure, that one who does something without devotion does not do it by will, but by necessity. For because it is not within his own power, he does unwillingly what has been commanded him.

What then shall be my reward?

That preaching the gospel, I should make the gospel free of charge; so that I do not abuse my power in the gospel. Having repressed the boastfulness of words, he glories, and wants it to be understood how great a reward he deserves, because he does not use his power in the gospel, when he refuses expenses offered to him, lest he should lessen the force of his preaching. This is: it is lawful, but not expedient, for the sake of the salvation of the brothers, that they may be corrected.

He wishes to be a model for the rest, so that where they see it is not expedient, they should not use even lawful things: otherwise, they will become guilty by what is lawful, since they take it in such a way that it turns to their harm.

For though I am free from all, I have made myself the servant of all, that I might gain the more. He is free from all, since he has handed over the gospel to no one by flattery, nor has coveted anything from anyone beyond their salvation, nor received from anyone, for the sake of having luxuries, larger expenses as the wage of hypocrisy.

But he says he has made himself the servant of all in this way: that through humility he showed himself like all who are weak in mind, that he might strengthen them by patience toward their future salvation, cherishing the minds of those who either were sinning or were slower in following divine things, so that they might not take it harshly to be reproved.

I became to the Jews as a Jew, that I might gain the Jews.

It seems as if he simulated, so as to become all things to all men, which flatterers are wont to do; but it is not so. For the man of God and spiritual physician, knowing the causes and wounds of all, with great diligence cherishes them and shows compassion; for we have certain things in common with all men. He became, then, a Jew as a Jew; because on account of their offense he circumcised Timothy, and, purified, went up into the temple, lest they should take occasion through him to blaspheme.

He therefore did a thing which ought already to have ceased, but he did it according to the Law. For he also agreed with them that the Law and the Prophets were from God, and showed from them that this was the Christ who was promised: that his agreement might have its effect.

To those who are under the Law, as though under the Law (though I myself am not under the Law), that I might gain those who are under the Law.

Those who are under the Law are known to be the Samaritans; for they accept the Law alone, that is, the five books of Moses. They are, moreover, of the origin of the Persians and Assyrians, whom the king of the Assyrians, after removing the sons of Israel into captivity, placed to inhabit the regions of Samaria; therefore they also worship fire in the manner of the Persians.

To these, then, the Apostle, while not denying that the Law was from God, became as though under the Law: but from it he taught them, in a gentle word, that Christ was to be understood, as also that Samaritan woman who said to the Lord: I know that the Messiah is coming, taught through the Law.

To those who are without the Law, as though I were without the Law (though I am not without the law of God, but am in the law of Christ), that I might gain those who are without the Law. He says this, because being in the law of Christ, he is in the law of God; because what belongs to Christ belongs to God, and what belongs to God belongs to Christ, as he says: All that is mine is yours, and yours is mine. That I might gain those who are without the Law.

For while he assents to them, that is, to the Gentiles, according to natural reason, that the world was made by God, and the things which are in it, and that the soul is immortal, and that we have our origin from him himself (for so he says in the Acts of the Apostles: As also certain of your own have said: For we are also his offspring)—thus he became as one without the law, whereby he introduced to them that Christ himself is he whom God foreordained to judge the world, and that he himself is the one through whom he made all things.

I became weak to the weak, that I might gain the weak.

He became weak while, for the sake of weak brothers, he abstained from lawful things, lest he should generate a scandal for them. To all I have become all things, that I might save all.

This was the mark of a prudent and spiritual man, that having become all things to all men, he nevertheless did not exceed the purpose of religion; because where he yielded, he yielded to this end, that he might benefit; nor did he do anything other than what the Law commanded.

all things I do for the sake of the gospel, that I may become a partaker of it.

That is, I do all the aforesaid things, that I may become a partaker of the evangelical will, which it has concerning human salvation.

Do you not know that they who run in a race all indeed run, but one receives the prize?

Now he wishes to expound another matter: and so by this example he shows how great is the advantage of our law, in which the prize is promised not to one, but to all. So run, that you may obtain.

He earnestly wishes them to run toward the promise, because it is great.

Now everyone who competes in the contest abstains from all things: he transmits the same teaching about all the things which are to be avoided, though they know that only one is to be crowned; how much more ought it to be observed by us, since salvation is promised to all! And they indeed, that they may receive a corruptible crown: but we an incorruptible one. And in this the gift is very different, and for this reason we ought to be more diligent, for whom is kept, not with earthly and fading flowers, but with eternal gems woven in the manner of a royal diadem, a spiritual crown.

So I run, not as into uncertainty.

He professes to run with great hope, having a certainty of what is promised. So I fight, not as one beating the air. That is, I do not contend more with words, but with deeds. But I chastise my body, and bring it into subjection.

To chastise the body is to afflict it with fastings, and to give it those things which serve for life, not for luxury.

It is brought into subjection while it fulfills not its own will, but that of the spirit. Lest perhaps, while preaching to others, I myself should be found reprobate. Therefore he shows that he restrains his own body, so that by the reward which he preaches to others, he himself also may be deemed worthy; lest, having cured others, he himself remain in the wound. He therefore affirms the certainty of his own hope of preaching, when he shows by deeds that he himself pursues what he teaches; because he who acts otherwise than he preaches makes his hearers suspicious, so that they doubt the promises. By his own example, therefore, he exhorts that we should be exercised not more by words than by works.

For I do not want you to be ignorant, brothers, that our fathers were all under the cloud, and all passed through the sea, and all were baptized in Moses, in the cloud and in the sea. By the example of the Jews, who by their negligence gave offense, he wishes us to be watchful; and so he says they were under the cloud, because all the things that were done were done in figure of us, that they had, as it were, an image of our truth. For being covered by the cloud, and kept safe from their adversaries, while they were freed from death, they are said to have been baptized. For while those, that is, the Egyptians, died in the sea, and these, under the leadership of Moses, crossed over successfully, they were snatched from death: which baptism accomplishes.

For their past evils were not imputed to them, but purified through the sea and the cloud, they were prepared to receive the Law and the pattern of our future sacrament.

all ate the same spiritual food, and all drank the same spiritual drink; for they drank of the spiritual rock that followed them: and the rock was Christ.

He calls manna and the water which flowed from the rock "spiritual," because they were not prepared by the law of the world, but created for a time, by the power of God, without mixture of elements, having in themselves the figure of the future mystery, which we now receive in remembrance of Christ the Lord. Therefore it was also called the bread of angels, because it was created by the power by which the angels subsist: signifying this, that he who would spiritually feed was to come from the heavens.

Whence also the manna first came from heaven on the Lord's day, to the satisfying of the people; yet it is called a following rock, which is understood to be Christ. For where human support failed them, Christ was present; therefore it followed, that where it had failed, he might come to their aid. For it was not the rock that gave the water, but Christ.

But God was not well pleased with the greater part of them.

He said this because they did not understand the benefit they had received. For they were laid low in the desert. It is fitting that one who has obtained great things, yet distrusts in small ones, should not only fail to attain those great things, but should even lose them.

Since, then, he has above exhorted them to better things, saying also of himself that he labors to run worthily to the promise; now, in order to bind and persuade them by the terror of this example, he says that the Jews then in like manner received the gift and grace of God, as we also have; and because they were negligent and doubted concerning the promise of God, they were laid low in the desert; that he might show that he afflicts himself for this reason, lest he be found in their number: hence one must labor, that they may become imitators of him.

Now these things happened in figure of us, that we should not be desirous of evil things, as they also desired.

This is the sense and reasoning which I mentioned above. Neither be idolaters, as some of them were. Now he touches those who, reclining at an idol's temple, thought it was not a sin.

As it is written: The people sat down to eat and drink, and rose up to play: before the idol, indeed; that they should not believe themselves free from crime, who feasted in the idol's temple. For when Moses was set on the mountain with God, and the image of the calf had been made, after the offering made for the sake of dedication: The people sat down to eat and drink, and rose up to play. This is luxury, because, always delighting themselves, they were found faithless in the things of God. Therefore he instructs us, lest we fall into this same distrust through consent to luxury in an idol's temple.

Neither let us commit fornication, as some of them committed fornication, and there fell in one day twenty-three thousand.

This was repaid to them, when they defiled themselves with the women of Midian; for the wrath of God broke out against them, which was appeased by the zeal of Phinehas the priest, who had the zeal of God, lest more should die.

Neither let us tempt Christ, as some of them tempted, and perished by serpents.

They are said to have tempted Christ, in detracting from God; because it was Christ who was speaking to Moses. Accordingly, lest we be found in the same case, he warns us not to be handed over to the devil, whose figure the serpents bear.

Neither murmur, as some of them murmured.

To murmur is falsely to complain to one another about superiors and rulers, so far as pertains to the mind of the passage; because murmuring is sometimes accustomed to arise even from a just cause. And they perished by the destroyer.

That is, they went into the place of Judas, anticipating him; for Judas, in betraying Christ, was exterminated from the number of the apostles by God the judge. By these examples he provokes us to correction in life; that by his admonitions we might merit either a reward, if we are obedient, or a heavier punishment, if we are disobedient. For it is not doubtful that those sinning shall be subjected all the more to torments, for whom the punishments of sinners have been recorded for this very purpose, that they might not sin.

Now all these things happened to them in figure; but they were written for our correction, upon whom the ends of the ages have come.

The ends of the ages are we; because these things are known to have happened for the sake of their retribution then, in order that they might be an example to us, who were to come in the last age in the faith of Christ.

For they were done for our benefit, that if by the terror of these things we remain in the fear of God, we may receive the glory promised to them; but if not, their punishment shall be doubled for us; because a greater knowledge of the law makes one the more guilty.

Therefore, let him who thinks he stands take heed lest he fall. He speaks this to those who, presuming upon their knowledge that all things are lawful to eat, were a scandal to weak brothers; and thinking that they profited somewhat by the teaching of the false apostles, they had grown worse; and they judged the Apostle, though they themselves were guilty. He therefore cuts off pride, lest they be tempted by it, as the Jews were tempted, and perished.

Let no temptation take hold of you but such as is human.

And by this, those detracting from the Apostle seem to be tempting the Lord

because at that time also, when they detracted from Moses and doubted concerning him, they are said to have tempted God. For everything that is not held to be tested is being tempted; therefore, that this temptation might be uprooted, he admonishes with terror. He exhorts, moreover, that only human temptation should seize them: for human temptation is to distrust in man on account of hope in God, because hope is vain in man; that in necessity or pressure one should not despair of God, seeking human aid, as the Jews also did, who, doubting of God, entreated the help of idols.

This is human aid; because the gods of the pagans are earth, and human error invented worship of them. To suffer for Christ's sake, then, is a human temptation, through which one profits before God.

But God is faithful, who will not suffer you to be tempted above what you are able; but will make, with the temptation, also a way of escape, that you may be able to bear it. He calls God faithful, who will not suffer you to be tempted above what you are able; because God has promised to give heavenly kingdoms to those who love him: and it is necessary that he give it, because he is faithful. Therefore he will be present to those in tribulation for his own sake, nor will he suffer such a burden to be imposed as cannot be endured: but he will bring it about either that the temptation quickly ceases, or, if it should be prolonged, he will give the strength to endure: otherwise he will not give what he promised, because he who suffers would be overcome.

For man is subject to weakness, and there will be none from whom he may receive help: but because God, who promised, is faithful, he comes to his aid, that he may fulfill what he promised. Finally, the Lord wills the days to be shortened, that the elect may be saved, and may obtain the kingdom of God. Yet how is he aided by God, if he is permitted to be tempted only so much as he can bear? He is plainly aided, while it is not permitted more to be imposed upon him than he is known to be able to bear; so that he who is known not to be able to endure beyond three days, is not permitted to suffer even on the fourth day.

Wherefore, my dearest ones, flee from the worship of idols.

He exhorts them even now, that they should abstain from all fellowship with idolatry, so that not only hope but even the very mind be removed from it, lest through this a temptation against God be born.

For no one is constant in an idol's temple who hopes nothing from it: for to hope from this source is to doubt of God, as also Saul, having abandoned God, who had been angered with him on account of an offense, betook himself to idolatry, hoping something from it. Which indeed both harmed him in the present, and provided for him in the future the avenging hell.

As to wise men, judge for yourselves what I say.

He adduces examples, so as to persuade more easily; because for one to whom words are not sufficient, examples are wont to persuade.

The cup of blessing which we bless, is it not the communion of the blood of the Lord?

The bread which we break, is it not the communion of the body of the Lord? Because there is one bread, we, being many, are one body; for we all partake of one bread and one cup.

Since we are one, each the member of the other, he says we ought to feel one thing; that the one faith may have one sense and one work.

Behold Israel according to the flesh: that is, learn, you who see God, how carnal things stand, that is, idolatry.

Are not those who eat the sacrifices partakers of the altar? For as we, receiving of one bread and one cup, are partakers and companions of the body of the Lord: so also those who eat the sacrifices are partakers of the altar of error.

What then do I say, that anything is offered to an idol?

Not that the idol is anything; but that what they sacrifice, they sacrifice to demons. The idol is truly nothing; because it appears an image of a dead thing: but under the covering of idols the devil is worshiped. I do not want you to become partakers of demons.

He shows them that this is only what is seen in the idol's temple; but that there is a hidden mystery of iniquity, which Satan devised in order to corrupt the faith of the one God. Whence also the apostle John says in his epistle: For this the Son of God came, that he might destroy the works of the devil.

You cannot drink the cup of the Lord and the cup of demons; you cannot partake of the table of the Lord and the table of demons.

As the Lord also says: You cannot serve God and mammon: because he who drinks the cup of demons insults the cup of the Lord; and when he shares the table of demons, he affronts the table of the Lord, that is, the altar, and crucifies the body of the Lord. For Christ was crucified for this reason, that he might destroy the works of the devil. He, therefore, who does the works of the devil, fights against Christ.

Or do we provoke the Lord to jealousy?

Are we stronger than he?

It scarcely happens that a humble man is jealous of a powerful one; for he knows it does not befit him to be envied in that in which he can be. But one is envied either by an equal, or by one nearly equal. Therefore the Apostle said that men cannot rival the Lord Jesus, because they know him to be the Lord: otherwise, he would not seem to them worthy to be called Lord, whom they envy, so that he might not be Lord. For by jealousy Satan invented idolatry, that men, by denying God the Lord, might serve idols as if they were gods and lords. All things are lawful to me, but not all things are expedient. He says all things are lawful according to the law of nature; for all things are clean. For the discussion was about foods, and meat offered to idols.

For how can things be said to be lawful which are forbidden and prohibited, since here even the very things that are permitted are shown sometimes not to be expedient? As the apostle Paul says: If such is the case of a man with his wife, it is not expedient to marry.

All things are lawful to me, but not all things edify.

The sense is the same, that it is lawful to eat all things: but what is sacrificed to idols does not edify; because it causes a scandal to the brother, as was said above: therefore one must sometimes abstain from lawful things, that one may profit. Hence it is that he was unwilling to receive expenses from them, though it was lawful for him, knowing it was not expedient.

Let no one seek his own, but that of another.

It is true that while each one reclines at the idol's temple, he satisfies his own will, and puts a scandal before his weak brother's conscience.

Wherefore we must hasten for the sake of the charity of our Lord Jesus Christ; that we should rather forbid what is necessary for the salvation of our neighbor, than follow our own will, just as the same Apostle, the chosen vessel and spiritual physician, says: Not seeking what is profitable to myself, but to many.

Whatever is sold in the market, eat, asking no question for conscience' sake; for the earth is the Lord's, and the fullness thereof.

That he might show all things to be clean, he confirmed this by the example of the twenty-third psalm; because what belongs to the Lord cannot be unclean. And since above, concerning foods, he said: All things are lawful, he immediately added: Whatever is sold in the market, eat, asking no question for conscience' sake.

He added this so that the conscience might be free; for although a thing may be polluted incidentally, that is, by an offering to an idol, yet since he who buys does not know this, he suffers no scruple, and is innocent before God.

If any of the unbelievers invite you, and you are willing to go, eat whatever is set before you, asking no questions.

That is, simply eat what is set before you, not asking whence it is.

But if anyone says to you: This has been offered to idols, do not eat it, for the sake of him who told you, and for conscience' sake.

But conscience, I say, not your own, but that of the other.

This he speaks to the perfect, who, despising idolatry, are able to eat of the sacrifice, being certain that what is eaten under the name of God the Creator cannot pollute: but because the other, who serves idols, will glory, when you eat of the sacrifices, as though you were reverencing idols; therefore it ought not to be eaten. For in his own conscience he will rejoice, seeing that you willingly desire what has been sacrificed to idols. For why is my liberty judged by another's conscience? He says this: since one's conscience is free from devotion to idols, what need is there that it be thought that one eats things sacrificed to idols out of veneration? For he will be judged not to differ from one who worships idols, when he does not shrink from what has been offered to an image.

If I partake with thanks, why am I evil spoken of for that for which I give thanks?

That is, if I share in the grace of God, because I eat in his name: what need is there that anyone should think this, that I am devoted to an idol, since I do not shrink from what has been offered to an idol; that is, am I evil spoken of? He therefore both speaks evil of me, and rejoices in his own idol-worship; while he thinks me a partaker, he has occasion to remain in his error, and a bad example is given to the brothers. For if it is commanded in the Law that groves and altars and pillars and the idols themselves be broken down; see whether it is not a sin not only not to do these things, but even to be present at feasts of this kind; therefore it is not expedient to eat of things sacrificed.

Whether therefore you eat, or drink, or do anything, do all things for the glory of God.

Through these added words he declared that to eat in the idol's temple, even with a clear conscience, is to be an enemy of God; for these things are dedicated to the devil to the reproach of the one God. For to eat and drink and do anything for the glory of God is this: that a feast be celebrated under the invocation of the Creator, with moderation; for something is done for the glory of God when God is praised in the acts and manner of life of a Christian, or when the procreation of children is hoped for from God.

Be without offense to the Jews, and to the Greeks, and to the Church of God.

Thus he teaches that our manner of life should be so regulated, that no one should suffer a scandal from it. An offense, then, is given to the Jews when they see a Christian, who says that he accepts the Law and the Prophets, not abhorring idols, which they themselves abominate.

To the Greeks

that is, to the Gentiles, this is the offense: if, in that in which they are, they are not only not reproved, but even become bolder, when the vows to their idols are not avoided. To the Church of God, moreover, a stumbling block occurs, when it sees some from its own number cling to those things that are hostile to God.

Just as I please all men in all things, not seeking what is profitable to myself, but what is profitable to many, that they may be saved.

To please all men in all things is to act, without scandal to anyone, for the profit of their advantage, so that it be useful both to them and to oneself.

Be imitators of me, as I also am of Christ.

What he says is human, that we should be imitators of him, who has been granted to us by God as our teacher. For if he is an imitator of God, why should we not be imitators of a man? Because just as God the Father sent Christ as our teacher and author of life; so also Christ sent the apostles to be our teachers, that we might be imitators of them; because we cannot be imitators of himself. For thus the Lord says to the Father: As you have sent me into this world, so I also have sent them into this world. And because they were worthy imitators of him, he added: And for them I sanctify myself.

Now I praise you, brothers, that in everything you remember me, and that as I have delivered them to you, you keep my traditions.

After reproving their morals and manner of life, he now wishes to correct their traditions.

Therefore he does not affirm this, but rather is displeased with them; because though he was their apostle, they were forgetful of his traditions: nor did they follow, from the tradition of other churches, what they had not yet learned; and so he delivers to them as though anew, saying:

I want you to know that the head of every man is Christ.

He refers this to authority; for man indeed is from God, but through Christ. And the head of the woman is the man. Because, although woman too is through Christ, yet she was made from the man, and by this she is subject to the man. And the head of Christ is God. It is fitting that the head of the Son should be called the Father, as being his begetter. Yet the head of the man is Christ in one way, and the man is the head of the woman in another way, and God is the head of Christ in yet another way.

God is the head of Christ for this reason, that Christ was begotten of him or from him.

But the man is the head of the woman for this reason, that she was formed from his rib by the power of God. But Christ is the head of the man for this reason, that man was created through him when he did not yet exist. One and the same expression, then, has a different meaning; because both the persons differ and the substances.

Every man praying or prophesying with his head covered dishonors his head.

By "praying" he means to make supplication: by "prophesying," to declare, after the prayer, in the words of the symbol, that the coming of the Lord is to be.

But every woman praying or prophesying with her head unveiled dishonors her head; for it is one and the same thing, as if she were shaved.

For if a woman is not veiled, let her be shorn: but if it is a shame for a woman to be shorn or shaved, let her cover her head. For the man ought not to cover his head, since he is the image and glory of God. Although man and woman are of one substance, yet because the man is the head of the woman, he is set before her as reported; so that by cause and reason he is greater, not by substance. The woman, then, is inferior to the man, for she is a portion of him; because the origin of the woman is the man: for she is from him, and by this the woman appears subject to the man, so that she is placed under his authority. He says that the dignity and honor of the man is an obstacle to his covering his head; for it is unfitting that the image of God should be concealed: for it ought not to be hidden, since the glory of God is seen in the man.

But the woman is the glory of the man.

There is much difference between the glory of God and the glory of man; for man was made to the image of God, not woman. But this image of God is in the man, because the one God made one man; so that just as all things are from the one God, so also all men would be from one man; so that the invisible one God might have his image in one visible man on earth, that the one God might be seen to preserve, in one man, the authority of one first principle, to the confusion of the devil, who, having disregarded the one God, wished to usurp for himself dominion and divinity.

The prophet Ezekiel signifies this, and the Apostle likewise, for he says: So that he sits in the temple of God, showing himself as though he were God.

For the man is not from the woman, but the woman from the man: for indeed the man was not created for the sake of the woman, but the woman for the sake of the man. For this reason the woman ought to have power over her head also because of the angels. He signified power by the veil, and calls bishops "angels," as is taught in the Apocalypse of John. And because they are indeed men, they are rebuked for what they did not correct in the people; and what is right in them is praised. The woman, therefore (33 quaest. 5, chap. "Mulier"), ought for this reason to veil her head; because she is not the image of God, but so that she may be shown to be subject.

And because the transgression was begun through her, she ought to have this sign; so that in the Church, out of reverence for the episcopal office, she may not have her head free, but covered with a veil; nor have the authority to speak; because the bishop holds the person of Christ. As therefore before a judge, so before the bishop, since he is the vicar of the Lord, she ought to appear subject on account of the origin of her guilt.

Nevertheless, neither is woman without man, nor man without woman, in the Lord.

Hence "in the Lord," because God made both from one, and they are one; for they are one flesh and one body in the Lord, that is, according to the Lord, who created them. Finally, those who do not believe that woman was taken from man, these are without the Lord, or do not believe according to the Lord concerning the origin of mankind.

For as the woman is from the man, so also is the man through the woman.

He confirmed what he had said; because both are one in nature, and the origin of woman is man, as it is read in Genesis to have been done by the Lord Creator. But all things are from God. After he had set forth each point step by step, so as to subject all things to God, keeping the one first principle, he says: But all things are from God; so that neither would the woman be saddened on account of her subjection, nor the man, as though exalted, become proud.

Judge for yourselves: is it fitting for a woman to pray to God unveiled?

This is why above he chides them by irony, saying: I praise you because you keep all things of mine in memory, and just as I hand them down everywhere, you hold to my traditions (above, verse 2). For since this was the reason of the tradition, that women should be veiled in the Church, they on the contrary allowed them to be unveiled in the Church.

And therefore he now strives to persuade them of the truth not by the authority of tradition, which they had neglected, but through nature itself, saying:

Does not nature itself teach you that if a man has long hair, it is a disgrace to him?

He said this according to the Law; for it forbids a man to wear long hair. But if a woman has long hair, it is a glory to her; because her hair is given to her instead of a veil. He wants this to be naturally honorable and, as it were, decreed, that the veiled woman should give satisfaction and thanks to God. Hair, therefore, is an indication of the veil, so that will may be added to nature. Finally, no woman, even unveiled, gains authority.

But if anyone seems to be contentious, we have no such custom, nor does the Church of God.

After giving his reason, so as to overcome the contentious, he interposes authority; because neither did Judaism have this, whence he says: Neither we, nor the Church of God, as neither Moses nor the Savior handed it down thus.

Now this I command, not praising you, that you come together not for the better but for the worse.

Just as he corrects their conduct point by point through rebuke, so also their traditions, not praising them at all, but blaming them.

For first of all. By saying "first," he shows the kind of sin from which the errors he rebukes arose; for where there is dissension, nothing is right. When you come together in the church, I hear that there are dissensions among you, and I partly believe it. For there must also be heresies, that those who are approved may be made manifest among you.

Knowing that some were corrupted in mind by the cunning of the devil, he says: There must be heresies. He certainly did not wish it, nor desire it; but because he knew it would happen, he said so, just as the Lord also said: It is necessary, he says, that scandals come. And: The Son of Man must suffer, foreknowing that Judas would be the betrayer. And when he says "that those who are approved may be made manifest among you," he means those who, persevering in the tradition received, were an example of the proven evangelical discipline for the condemnation of the rest. These are the ones he signifies at the head of the epistle, in that they said: We indeed are of Christ; while others said: I am of Paul, I of Apollo.

When you come together, then, in one place, it is not now to eat the Lord's supper.

For each one takes his own supper first in eating: and one indeed is hungry, and another is drunk.

Do you not have houses to eat and drink in?

Or do you despise the Church of God, and put to shame those who have nothing? He notes those who came together into the Church in such a way that, offering their own gifts, when the presbyters arrived (since rectors had not yet been established for all the Churches in every place), those who had offered claimed the whole for themselves, for the sake of schism. For pseudo-apostles had sown dissensions among them, so that they were jealous over their own offerings, whereas all offerings were blessed by one and the same prayer of all; so that those who, as usually happens, had not offered, or had nothing from which to offer, seized by shame, were put to confusion, taking no share; and they did this so quickly that those arriving later found nothing left to eat.

Therefore he says: if you come together in such a way that each takes his own portion, this ought to be done at home, not in the Church; where the gathering is for the sake of unity and of the mystery, not of dissension and of the belly. For the gift offered should be that of the whole people; because in the one bread all are signified. For through the fact that we are one, we all ought to partake from the one bread.

What shall I say to you?

Shall I praise you? In this I do not praise you. It is clear that, the error having been detected and rebuked, so that for the rest they may correct themselves and know this to be true, which they themselves had long ago learned in the beginnings; he repeats the form which was given by the Savior in a matter of this kind, saying:

For I received from the Lord what I also delivered to you, that the Lord Jesus, on the night on which he was betrayed, took bread, and giving thanks, broke it, and said: Take, and eat. This is my body, which is broken for you: do this in remembrance of me. In like manner also the cup, after supper was ended, saying: This cup is the new Testament in my blood; do this, as often as you drink it, in remembrance of me.

He shows them that the mystery of the eucharist was celebrated during the supper, but is not itself the supper; for it is a spiritual medicine, which, tasted with reverence, purifies the one devoted to it. For it is the memorial of our redemption; so that, being mindful of the Redeemer, we may deserve to obtain greater things from him.

For as often as you shall eat this bread, and drink of the cup, you proclaim the death of the Lord, until he comes. For since we have been freed by the death of the Lord, being mindful of this, in eating and drinking the flesh and blood which were offered for us, we signify that we have obtained the new Testament in these things, which is the new law, which delivers the one obedient to it to the heavenly kingdoms. For Moses also, having taken the blood of the calf in a bowl, sprinkled the children of Israel, saying: This is the Testament which God has ordained for you.

This was a figure of the Testament which the Lord called new through the prophets; so that that would be the old, which Moses delivered. The Testament, therefore, was established by blood; because blood is the witness of the divine benefit. In figure of which we receive the mystic cup of blood for the protection of our body and soul; because the blood of the Lord redeemed our blood, that is, saved the whole man. For the flesh of the Savior was offered for the salvation of the body, but the blood for our soul, as had earlier been prefigured by Moses; for thus he says: Flesh is offered for your body, but blood for the soul; and therefore blood was not to be eaten.

If, then, among the ancients there was an image of the truth which has now appeared and been manifested in the coming of the Savior, how do the heretics think the old contrary to the new, when they mutually bear witness to each other?

Therefore whoever shall eat this bread, or drink the cup of the Lord unworthily, shall be guilty of the body and blood of the Lord. He says that he is unworthy of the Lord who celebrates the mystery otherwise than it was delivered by him. For he cannot be devoted who presumes otherwise than was given by the author. Therefore he forewarns that, according to the order delivered, the mind of one approaching the Lord's eucharist should be devout; since there is to be a judgment, so that as each one approaches, he shall render account on the day of the Lord Jesus Christ; because those who approach without the discipline of tradition and of conduct are guilty of the body and blood of the Lord.

But what is it to be guilty, except to pay the penalties of the Lord's death?

For he was slain for those who bring his benefit to nothing.

But let a man examine himself, and so let him eat of that bread, and drink of the cup.

For he who eats and drinks unworthily, eats and drinks judgment to himself, not discerning the body of the Lord. He teaches that one should approach communion with a devoted mind and with fear; so that the mind may know that it owes reverence to him, to whose body it approaches to receive. For this it ought to judge within itself; because he is the Lord, whose blood, in the mystery, one drinks, who is the witness of God's benefit. If we receive him with discipline, we shall not be unworthy of the body and blood of the Lord; for we shall appear to render thanks to the Redeemer.

Therefore many among you are weak and sick, and many sleep.

In order to prove it true that there is to be an examination of those who receive the body of the Lord, he here already shows an image of the judgment upon those who had received the body of the Lord inconsiderately, when they were seized by fevers and infirmities, and many were dying: so that in these the rest might learn, and, terrified by the example of the few, might be corrected, knowing that receiving the body of the Lord carelessly does not go unpunished; and that he whose punishment is here deferred will be dealt with more severely, because he despised the example.

But if we judged ourselves, we would certainly not be judged.

But while we are judged, we are chastened by the Lord; so that we may not be condemned with this world. He says this, because if we ourselves corrected our own errors, we would not be judged by the Lord. And because we are chastened, still it is for our good: that we may be corrected by that very fear.

For in few is there correction of all. "Not with this world," that is, not condemned with unbelievers. For he who approaches the table of the Lord inconsiderately differs in nothing from an unbeliever.

Therefore, brothers, when you come together to eat, wait for one another. If anyone is hungry, let him eat at home. He says to wait for one another, so that the offering of many may be celebrated together, that all may be served; and if anyone is impatient, let him be fed at home with earthly bread. "That you may not come together unto judgment": that is, so that you may not perform the mystery reprehensibly and with offense. But the rest I will set in order when I come. He showed first, in order, the matter of greeting, and set forth beforehand how both sexes should come together in the Church: in which matters, if there is error, it is no light sin. The rest, which pertains to the edification of the Church, he promised to arrange by his presence.

Now concerning spiritual things, I do not want you to be ignorant, brothers.

You know that you were Gentiles, going after the form of idols, as you were led. About to deliver spiritual matters to them, he recalls the example of their former manner of life; so that, just as they were in the form of idols, worshipping idols, and were led under the guidance of the will of demons, so also, worshipping God, they may be in the form of the Lord's law, walking as it pleases the Lord. For the form of each law ought to be seen in the profession and conduct of the worshipper; for that man is the form and image of the law of God, in whose faith and conduct the truth of the Gospel shines.

Therefore I make known to you that no one, speaking in the Spirit of God, says "Anathema to Jesus"; and no one can say "The Lord Jesus," except in the Holy Spirit.

Because, being ignorant of the reasoning of spiritual things, in each of the charisms they gave glory to men rather than to God, not perceiving that this gift is ministered through the Holy Spirit; and because he who calls Jesus Lord does not say this without the Holy Spirit; for he has grace in this very act of his faith for the glory of the name of Christ; for it is not without the gift of God that one calls Jesus Lord; and by this he shows them that in all things the praise and grace belong to God; because just as the image of idols is in its ministers, having its order through each rank, yet belongs wholly to man, so also in the Lord's law the ranks of charisms are for the offices of the Church, granted certainly not according to human merits, but as members pertaining to the edification of the Church, which have their glory of themselves and in themselves, as is also the case in human offices.

For there are ranks which give dignity to those placed in them; so that the honor of the position makes the man glorious, not his own praise. He says, then: No one speaking in the Spirit of God says "Anathema to Jesus." For the voice that says "Anathema to Jesus" is uttered by human error; for whatever is false is from man. And no one can say "The Lord Jesus," except in the Holy Spirit. For the very saying by which "the Lord Jesus" is signified was poured out not by the flattery of men, as also idols are called gods, but by the truth of the Holy Spirit; for whatever true thing is said by anyone is said by the Holy Spirit.

So that they might not think it human favor in the Christian rule, and for this reason might by no means allow themselves to be corrected, as is also the case with idols (for man devised that one who is not God should be called God; and by this the priests are made subject to them); he shows them that there is no human benefit in the fact that "the Lord Jesus" is said: but rather it is the gift of God, who deigned to declare his mystery to men. For indeed the very confession obtains remission of sins, just as the invocation of idols increases them. He teaches them, then, that they confer no benefit on religion by saying "the Lord Jesus," but rather receive one; lest, in the manner of idols, they should think there was human grace in the law of the Lord, when one who is not God is called God.

Finally, not understanding that it is God's gift

that is in the faith, individuals had chosen for themselves individual men whom they would follow, saying: I am of Paul, I indeed of Apollo. He humbles their pride, therefore, that they may allow themselves, as I said, to be corrected.

Now there are divisions of graces.

He does not wish this to be ascribed to human merits, but to the grace of God for the honor of his name; for just as he who says "the Lord Jesus" says it in the Holy Spirit, whatever kind of man he may be, so also he who is placed in a position of ecclesiastical office has grace, whatever kind of man he may be: not indeed his own, but that of the office through the working of the Holy Spirit. Whence also among the beginnings he says: Neither is he who plants anything, nor he who waters, but God who gives the increase.

The same Spirit.

And there are divisions of ministries.

He says that diverse gifts are supplied through the same Spirit. The same Lord. And there are divisions of workings. He now joins Christ to the Holy Spirit. But the same God, who works all things in all. To such a degree does he not wish this to be attributed to men, as though it were their own, but asserts it to belong to God alone; that he even declares the gift of the Holy Spirit and the grace of the Lord Jesus to be the working of one God; lest grace and gift be divided on account of the persons of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit: but rather that the one work of the three, of undivided unity and nature, may be understood, so that he refers all glory and divinity to the One. But the divisions of graces are for the offices of the Church, not allotted according to human merits.

For if the Holy Spirit is the same as the Lord, and the Lord is the same as God, and the three are one God; since indeed the glory, and power, and nature of the Holy Spirit are of God, and the Lord Jesus is the same in nature as God is, then certainly one is the Holy Spirit, and the Lord Jesus, and God the Father. For each one is one God, and the three are one God. Finally, though one works, the three are said to work; so that the mystery of the Trinity may be enclosed in the nature and power of the one God, though it is immeasurable.

But to each one is given the manifestation of the Spirit for profit.

That is, he receives a gift, so that, governing his life by divine reins, he may be useful both to himself and to others, while he shows an example of good conduct.

For to one is given, through the Spirit, the word of wisdom.

That is, prudence is given to him, not from letters, but from the flashing fire of the Holy Spirit; so that he may have an enlightened heart, and be prudent, so as to discern what is to be avoided, and what to be followed. But to another, the word of knowledge according to the same Spirit: that is, so that he may have knowledge of divine things. To another, the grace of healing in one Spirit: that is, so that he may grant a remedy to the weak or the sick.

To another, faith in the same Spirit.

He says this, so that he may receive the capacity for professing and defending the faith, shame having been overcome. To another, the working of miracles. He means that power is given to cast out demons or perform signs. To another, prophecy: that is, so that, filled with the Holy Spirit, he may tell future things. To another, discernment of spirits.

He says this, so that one may understand and judge what is said, whether it be of the Holy Spirit or of the world. To another, kinds of tongues, to another the interpretation of speech. To interpret is that, through the gift of God, one faithfully interprets the sayings of those who speak in tongues or letters.

But all these things the one and the same Spirit works, dividing to each as he wills.

What he said above concerning the three persons, he now professes to be done through the one Holy Spirit; so that, since they are of one nature and power, what the one works, the three work; yet there is one God, whose grace is divided to each, as he wills, not according to the merits of men, but rather for the edification of his Church; so that all the things which the world wishes to imitate but does not attain, because it is carnal, these may be seen in the Church, which is the house of God, granted through the offices, gift, and teaching of the Holy Spirit to individuals, for the proof of the truth in those who are contemptible to the world.

For as the body is one, and has many members: but all the members of the one body, though they are many, are one body; so also is Christ.

For indeed by one Spirit we were all baptized into one body, whether Jews, or Greeks, whether slaves, or free: and we have all drunk of one Spirit. By these things he teaches that no one's person is to be despised as though contemptible, nor is anyone to be preferred as though he were perfect; nor is the glory, which is owed to God alone, to be attributed to men; since in all the same one God is glorious: seeing that we all have one and the same baptism, and one and the same Holy Spirit. This is on account of the aforesaid reason; because they gloried in some, but despised others as contemptible.

For the body also is not one member, but many.

By saying this, he shows that unity holds varieties of offices, and that this diversity does not conflict with the unity of power; since the unity of the body does not consist in singularity, but in many members; so that they may render to one another what they owe.

If the foot should say: Because I am not the hand, I am not of the body; is it therefore not of the body?

That is, he who seems weak among the brothers cannot be denied to be of the body, because he is not powerful.

If the ear should say: Because I am not the eye, I am not of the body; is it therefore not of the body?

He says that one who is somewhat lower should not be thought unnecessary to the body, for the reason that he is not among the first.

If the whole body were an eye, where would the hearing be?

If the whole were hearing, where would the smelling be?

That is, if all were of one office and function, how would the rest of the body's need be fulfilled, since it is agreed that many offices are needed for the governing of the body?

But now God has placed the members, each one of them in the body, as he willed.

He says that the will of God, since it is provident and rational, has fitted the members to the body; so that nothing may be lacking to the body, but that it may be complete with many members.

But if all were one member, where would the body be?

It is clear that if all were of one dignity, they would not be called members, nor a body; and therefore they are governed together by the various offices of members; for all could not be one member. They are many for this reason, because they differ from one another in dignity.

But now indeed there are many members, but one body.

He says this, because, although the many members need one another, they do not conflict in the unity of nature, although they are diverse; because this diversity converges into one, so that the usefulness of the body may be fulfilled, just as also with the things of which the world itself consists, which are diverse not only in offices but also in natures; yet they contribute to the perfection of the one world, and from all of these there arises a certain harmony in the fruits, which contribute to human usefulness.

But the eye cannot say to the hand: I do not need your work.

That is, the greater cannot say to the lesser: I have no need of you; because the eye indeed sees, but it is the hands that work.

Or again the head to the feet: You are not necessary to me

that is, one greater in rank and dignity cannot be without him who is humble; because there is something the humble can do which the exalted cannot, just as iron can do what gold cannot; and by this the feet confer honor on the head.

But much more those members of the body which seem to be weaker are more necessary.

It is clear that although someone may be exalted in dignity, yet if the one subject to him, who by his services makes him glorious, is lacking, that very dignity will be contemptible: for it is the office through which the dignity stands. Such is the case if the emperor lacks an army. However great the emperor may be, therefore, he still needs an army; for it is a member of his body, having before it tribunes, counts, and masters.

Beneath all these are the soldiers, and they are more necessary, just as the members of the body, which, though they seem lower, are more useful; for without the eyes the hand works, and the walking foot seeks sustenance.

those members of the body which we think to be less honorable, on these we bestow more abundant honor.

The sense is similar, that those who are thought to be without dignity, we find in them something to praise, just as in the baser members, something that pleases us more than what we find in the others. For with what honor are the hands worthy, when we hold what we wish! Or the feet, with which we go where we wish! Therefore we also add to them honor, as for instance to the feet; which, because they are humble and without dignity, we adorn with shoes. And those parts of ours which are unseemly have more abundant honor.

It is clear that our private parts, which seem shameful, while avoiding public view, cover themselves with decency, lest they cause horror through irreverence. In like manner also certain of the brothers, though they are without honor in poverty and dress, are nevertheless not without the grace by which they are members of our body: for they are accustomed to go about girded in dreary little garments, with bare foot. Though they seem contemptible, therefore, they are more honorable; because they are accustomed to have a purer life. For what seems despised to men is often judged beautiful by God.

But our comely parts have no need.

It is clear that the head does not need it, nor the face, nor the hands, that anything be added to them by which they may be adorned: so also with the brothers, in whom the zeal of skill and the honor of conduct flourish, there is nothing that needs to be added by us; for the honor owed to them is rendered.

But for the despised or the humble, exhortation is necessary, by which some honor may be added to them, so that they may become useful: otherwise, through that very contempt, they will become more negligent of themselves, in those in whom progress is most needed.

But God has tempered the body, giving more abundant honor to that which lacked it; that there might be no schism in the body, but that the members might have the same care for one another. He says thus that the human body has been moderated by God, so that all its members are necessary; and by this they are solicitous for one another, because one cannot be without the other: and what is thought lower is more necessary; just as has been set forth or discussed concerning the brothers, that no one ought to be despised as though useless.

if one member suffers, all the members suffer with it.

This is not doubtful concerning the members of the body of flesh; for if the eye, or the foot, or the hand is seized by some infirmity of sickness, the whole body grieves together: so also he teaches us to grieve together with the brothers, if any such thing or necessity should arise. Or if one member is glorified, all the members rejoice together. It is clear that the head or the other members are glad, if the feet are well cared for or healthy. So we too ought to become joyful, if we see any brother a worshipper of God, and increased in honesty of morals, that is, sound in counsel.

Now you are the body of Christ, and members of a member.

He shows plainly that he has treated our own case through the reasoning of the bodily members; because we cannot all do the same things, but each of us has, according to the quality of his faith, a grace granted to him.

God has placed some in the Church, first indeed apostles.

He placed apostles as the head in the Church, who are the legates of Christ, as the same Apostle says: For whom we act as ambassadors. These are the bishops, Peter the apostle confirming this, saying, among other things, concerning Judas: And let another take his bishopric. Secondly, prophets. Let us understand "prophets" in a twofold sense, both those telling future things, and those revealing the Scriptures; although the apostles too are prophets, since the first rank has all things subject to it. Finally, the worst of men, Caiaphas, because he was high priest, prophesied, by reason of office indeed, not of his own merit.

Yet there were specially prophets, both interpreters of the Scriptures, and those telling future things, such as was Agabus, who prophesied to this Apostle the future disasters and chains at Jerusalem, and foretold the famine which occurred under Claudius. Therefore, although the apostle is greater, yet sometimes he needs the prophets. And because all things are from the one God the Father, he decreed that individual bishops should preside over individual Churches.

Thirdly, teachers.

He calls those teachers who in the Church instructed the young in letters and in the retaining of readings, in the manner of the synagogue; for their tradition passed over to us. In the fourth place he says: Then miracles, then the grace of healings; for someone can be not a bishop, and yet have in himself the gift of the power of healing. Helps, governments; that he may be watchful with understanding in divine matters: yet in such a way that, in some things which it is not granted him to fulfill, he may take from another what he does not have; because the whole cannot be granted to one. There are also governors, who by spiritual reins are an instruction to men. Kinds of tongues; that it is a gift of God to know many tongues. Interpretation of sayings; that God's grace may impart to someone the skill of interpreting tongues.

Are all apostles?

It is true, because in the Church there is one bishop. Are all prophets?

There is no doubt that prophecy is not granted to all.

Are all teachers? He is a teacher to whom it is granted to instruct others.

Do all have miracles?

He can have this power, to whom God gives to cast out demons. Do all have the grace of healings? How can it be that all have the gifts of healing? Do all speak with tongues? Certainly not, except one who receives the gift in this matter. Do all interpret? He can interpret sayings, to whom God gives it. These things are to be understood in the aforesaid sense. For he has explained, having given the reason, that all have diverse graces, and that the whole is not granted to any one, by the example of the members.

For by the example of the body of flesh he intimates the spiritual body: and by this, in all things God is to be blessed, and glory is to be given in his name, whose grace it is. We find this reasoning also in physical matters; for although gold is better than silver, silver is more in use; and although bronze is necessary, yet there is more need of iron; for almost nothing is made without iron, though it is lower. And after these things:

Be zealous for the better gifts.

This he presently resolves in what follows. And I show you yet a more excellent way. He leads them gradually to more useful things, showing them that the grace of every gift mentioned above, which is seen in men, whether of speaking, or of healing, or of prophesying, pertains not to the merit of the man, but to the honor of God. Therefore he now says he will show them a plainer way, by which one goes to heaven, which places merit before God.

For since the aforesaid things do not always pertain to merit, the Savior says: Many will say to me on that day, that is, of judgment: Lord, Lord, have we not prophesied in your name, and cast out demons in your name, and done many mighty works? And because this does not pertain to merit, but they are offices of the Church, for the confounding of the Gentiles and for declaring the honor of God, the Lord says to them: Depart from me: I never knew you, workers of iniquity. For being secure because the working of God was seen in them, they became negligent regarding themselves; for also, when the seventy-two disciples rejoiced that the demons were subject to them, the Savior says: Do not rejoice in this, that the demons are subject to you; but rejoice in this, that your names are written in heaven. Why, unless because they are subject to the name of God, not to the merit of man?

And why is it not so now, that men have the grace of God in this way?

At the beginning it was necessary, that the foundations of faith might receive firmness: but now it is not needed; because people bring people to the faith, when their good works are seen, and simple preaching.

If I speak with the tongues of men and of angels, but have not charity, I am become as sounding brass, or a tinkling cymbal.

Great indeed does the grace seem of speaking in diverse tongues: but it is something even greater, if one could even know the tongue of angels, that is, if one could have spiritual knowledge of the angelic motion. But that this is not to be ascribed to merit, but to the glory of God, he shows to his subjects, saying that it is thus as sounding brass or a tinkling cymbal. For as brass resounds by the impulse of another, and a cymbal tinkles; so also he who speaks in tongues has the effect and motion of the Holy Spirit, so that he can speak, just as the Saviour also says in another place: For it is not you that speak, but the Spirit of your Father, who speaks in you.

For the ass also spoke with human tongue to Balaam the son of Beor, that it might declare the majesty of God: and infant children broke forth in praise of God to the confusion of the Jews. But the Saviour shows that not only these, but even the stones can cry out to the condemnation of the unfaithful, and to the glory of God. And among the very beginnings, for the commendation of the faith, those who were being baptized spoke in tongues.

if I have prophecy, and know all mysteries and all knowledge; but have not charity, it profits me nothing.

Truly it profits nothing; for prophecy is for the glory of God, as David the prophet says: Not to us, O Lord, not to us, but to thy name give glory.

For Balaam also prophesied, though he was not a prophet, but a soothsayer: and Caiaphas prophesied, not by merit, but by the dignity of his priestly office: and Saul prophesied, when already because of his disobedience he had been filled with an evil spirit; but this was for God's purpose, so that he could not seize David, whom he also wished to kill. And if I know all mysteries: for it profited Judas nothing to have been with the apostles, and to have learned the mysteries; since, an enemy of charity, he betrayed the Saviour. And the prophet Ezekiel shows that the devil knew the heavenly mysteries, when in a rebuking voice he testifies that he had been in paradise as one of God's, and had had precious stones, which stones the same Apostle signified as the mysteries of divine doctrine: and it profited him nothing; because, forgetful of charity, he leapt forward into pride. And if I have all knowledge: knowledge profits me nothing, if there is no charity.

Finally it profited the scribes and Pharisees nothing, the Saviour saying: You have the key of knowledge, and you neither enter yourselves, nor allow others to enter; for by corrupting charity through envy, they reduced their knowledge to nothing. For Tertullian and Novatian too were not of small knowledge: but because through zeal they lost the bonds of charity, turned to schism, they created heresies to their own destruction. And if I have all faith, so that I could move mountains: to work virtues, or to cast out demons through faith, is the power and glory of God: nor does this avail to merit, unless one is also zealous for good conduct, as I have mentioned above.

if I bestow all my substance

it is clear that if all one's substance is spent, it profits nothing, if charity is neglected; because charity is the head of religion: and he who has no head, has no life. And if I deliver my body to be burned, it profits me nothing.

Without charity nothing profits; because charity is the foundation of religion.

Whatever therefore is done without charity is transient.

Charity is magnanimous, is kind.

Charity envies not, is not puffed up, does not behave itself wrongly, is not ambitious, seeks not her own, is not provoked, thinks no evil, rejoices not in iniquity, but rejoices with the truth: bears all things, believes all things, hopes all things, endures all things. Charity never fails. He has taught such praises of charity, that not without reason it might seem to be preferred to the rest, and that those who devote effort to the other commandments labor in vain, if they do not obey this one. Hence John the apostle says: Charity is God; so that he who has not charity should know that he does not have God; whence also in another epistle the same apostle Paul says: But God, who is rich in mercy, for his great charity wherewith he loved us.

Whoever therefore does not have charity is ungrateful for God's mercy; because he does not love that by which he was saved.

So that they might say accordingly that they were sinning gravely, who preferred food to fraternal charity. For this is what both profits in the present, and abides forever with God.

Whether prophecies shall be made void, or tongues shall cease, or knowledge shall be destroyed.

For we know in part, and we prophesy in part: but when that which is perfect is come, that which is in part shall be done away. He said that all the gifts of the charisms are to be done away; because they cannot comprehend as much as truth itself contains. Neither can we grasp nor fully declare the fullness of truth. For how can it come to pass that human tongue should embrace all that belongs to God? Therefore our imperfection will be destroyed, not that which is true shall be done away: but while what is lacking is added to the imperfect, it is destroyed.

For the destruction of imperfection occurs when that which is imperfect is fulfilled in the true.

When I was a child, I spoke as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child: but when I became a man, I put away the things of a child.

He says this, because it is necessary that the saints, going out of this world, should find more than they now suppose, as John the apostle said of the Saviour: Then we shall see him as he is. In this life, therefore, we are children in comparison with the life to come; because as this life is imperfect, so also is our knowledge.

We see now through a glass in a dark manner, but then face to face.

It is clear that now images are seen through faith, then the things themselves.

Now I know in part: but then I shall know, even as I am known

that is, I shall see the things that were promised, just as I am seen; that is, I shall be present with the Lord, where Christ is.

now there remain faith, hope, charity, these three: but the greatest of these is charity.

Fittingly charity is greater: because it was through charity that faith was proclaimed, and that there is hope of the life to come, as I have mentioned above. Whence John the apostle also says: By this we know his charity, because he laid down his soul for us. Justly, therefore, charity is greater, through which the human race has been reformed.

Follow after charity, be zealous for spiritual gifts: but rather that you may prophesy.

After charity, he exhorts that the zeal for prophesying should be held in greater regard: because although the spiritual gifts he enumerates are great, yet this is better, since it profits the good of the Church, so that all may learn the reason of the divine law. For in whatever a man has applied his mind, in that very thing he receives a gift, as Solomon says: To know the law is the mark of the best understanding; for knowledge supported by charity is not puffed up, but is gentle, profiting all to their advantage.

For he who speaks in a tongue speaks not unto men, but unto God; for no man understands him, but in the spirit he speaks mysteries. This is what he means, that he who speaks in an unknown tongue speaks to God; because he knows all things; but men do not know, and therefore there is no profit from this.

But in the spirit he speaks mysteries, not with the understanding

because he does not know what he says.

But he who prophesies speaks unto men for edification, and exhortation, and comfort; for he is edified, when he learns the solution of questions.

But exhortation comes to him, so that he may endure the desire of prophesying: and comfort comes, because he sees, in hope, disdain of discipline overcome. For knowledge of the law strengthens souls, and stirs them to advance toward better hope.

He who speaks in a tongue edifies himself: but he who prophesies edifies the Church. For by that which perhaps he alone knows, which he speaks, he edifies only himself: but he who prophesies edifies all the people, since what he says is understood by all.

He calls interpreters of Scripture prophets; for just as a prophet foretells the future, which is unknown: so also he, while manifesting the sense of Scripture, which is hidden to many, is said to prophesy.

I would that you all spoke with tongues: but rather that you prophesied.

He could not forbid speaking in tongues, since he said above that this gift is of the Holy Spirit: but he urges that the zeal for prophesying should rather be held, because it is more useful. For greater is he that prophesies, than he that speaks with tongues, except he interpret. Because if he can interpret, he will not be lesser; because he edifies the Church: for this is greater, which profits all.

For there one speaks in tongues by the gift of God, who also interprets, as did also those twelve in the Acts of the Apostles.

But now, brothers, if I come to you speaking with tongues, what shall I profit you, unless I speak to you either by revelation, or by knowledge, or by prophecy, or by doctrine?

All these signify one thing; for no one will be able to teach unless he is understood.

even things without life giving sound, whether pipe or harp, except they give a distinction in the sounds, how shall it be known what is piped or harped?

For if the trumpet give an uncertain sound, who shall prepare himself to the battle? Since examples persuade more readily than words, he commends by examples through which it may easily be perceived that those ought not to speak with tongues in the Church who cannot interpret.

For to what purpose does he speak, whom no one understands?

So likewise, unless by the tongue you utter words easy to be understood, how shall it be known what is spoken?

For you shall speak into the air; that is, achieving nothing. For there are, it may be, so many kinds of tongues in this world, and none of them is without signification. He says, indeed, there are many kinds of tongues, but they have their own proper significations of sounds, so that they may be understood.

If then I know not the meaning of the voice, I shall be to him that speaks a barbarian: and he that speaks a barbarian to me.

He does not warn that this should be striven for, that people should seem barbarians to one another through an unknown tongue: but because this is a matter of concord, effort should be made toward it; so that through unanimity of understanding, they may rejoice with common gladness.

So also you, since you are zealous of spirits, seek that you may abound unto the edifying of the Church, that you may prophesy.

Since it profits to explain the Scriptures (for the mind is aroused and rejoices, when it perceives something from the Scriptures: and the more it becomes inclined in this direction, the more it abandons vices), for that reason he advises that zeal should be applied to this part.

Wherefore let him that speaks with a tongue pray that he may interpret.

He warns him who desires to speak with tongues that he ought to pray, so that he may receive the gift of interpreting; so that his zeal may profit others.

For if I pray with a tongue, my spirit prays, but my understanding is without fruit. It is clear that our mind is ignorant, if it speaks in a tongue which it does not know, just as Latin men are accustomed to sing in Greek, delighted with the sound of the words; yet not knowing what they say. But the spirit which is given in baptism knows what the mind prays, when it speaks or utters prayer in a tongue unknown to itself: but the mind, which is the understanding, is without fruit. For what fruit can he have, who does not know what he speaks?

What is it then?

I will pray with the spirit, I will pray also with the understanding: I will sing with the spirit, I will sing also with the understanding.

He says this, because when one speaks in that tongue which he knows, he prays both with the spirit and with the understanding; because not only his spirit, which I said is given in baptism, knows what is prayed: but also his mind likewise, and it is not ignorant even concerning the psalm.

Otherwise if you shall bless with the spirit

that is, if you utter the praise of God in a tongue unknown to your hearers: How shall he that occupies the place of the unlearned say Amen? How does he say amen to your blessing, since he does not know what you say. For the unlearned man, hearing what he does not understand, does not know the end of the prayer, and does not answer, amen, that is, verily; so that the blessing may be confirmed.

For through these the confirmation of the prayer is fulfilled, who answer, amen; so that all that is said may be confirmed in the minds of the hearers by the testimony of truth.

For you indeed give thanks well. He speaks of him who speaks what is known to himself, because he knows what he says. But the other is not edified. If indeed you come together to edify the Church, those things ought to be said which the hearers understand. For what does it profit that one should speak with a tongue which he alone knows; so that he who hears profits nothing? Therefore he ought to keep silence in the Church, so that those may speak who profit the hearers.

I thank my God, that I speak with the tongue of you all.

Since above he said that to speak with tongues is a gift of the Holy Spirit, therefore he refers to God the fact that he could speak with the tongue of all.

And lest perhaps he might seem to say this as a rival through envy, he shows that he speaks in the tongues of all of these, and that it does not profit greatly.

But in the Church, he says, I would rather speak five words with my understanding, that I may instruct others also, than ten thousand words in a tongue.

He says it is more profitable to speak with clarity in a few words which all may understand, than to have a long discourse in obscurity. These were from among the Hebrews, who sometimes used the Syriac tongue, but frequently the Hebrew, in their discourses or offerings, for commendation's sake. For they gloried in being called Hebrews on account of the merit of Abraham, which the same Apostle counted as nothing, saying: But God forbid that I should glory, save in the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ.

Certain persons, imitating these, preferred to speak in the Church to the people in a tongue unknown to themselves, rather than their own.

Brothers, do not become children in understanding: but in malice be children; that in understanding you may be perfect.

He wishes them to be perfect, so that they may know what is necessary for the instruction of the Church; so that, withdrawing from malice and errors, they might strive after those things which would profit the good of the brothers. For he is perfect in understanding who acts so as to profit someone, especially a brother.

In the Law it is written: In other tongues and other lips will I speak to this people; and neither so will they hear me, says the Lord.

The Lord said this concerning those whom he foreknew would not believe in the Saviour either.

For to speak in other tongues and in other lips is to preach the New Testament, as Jeremiah the prophet says: Behold the days come, says the Lord, and I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel and the house of Judah, not according to what I appointed to their fathers: that is, to speak, by an altered reasoning, differently from what the words of the old law contain; while they hear that the Sabbath is dissolved, the new moons are done away, circumcision ceases, sacrifices are changed, foods long forbidden are permitted to be eaten, Christ is preached as God of God: this is to speak in other tongues, and in other lips; and not even so did the unfaithful wish to obey God.

It can also be understood thus, that because many of the Jews were malevolent, and therefore it was not fitting to speak the Gospel to them in open revelation, he would speak to them in parables: and understanding that it was not revealed to them because they were evil, and that not even so would they correct themselves; so that they would not be worthy of hearing the words of God plainly explained. Whence the disciples say to the Lord: Lord, why do you speak to them in parables? And the Lord: Because to you it is given to know the mystery of the kingdom of God, but to them it is not; that seeing they may not see, and hearing they may not understand; lest, being unworthy, they should receive salvation, which, they perceiving to have been done according to their merits, still did not, even so, wish to turn and satisfy God.

Wherefore tongues are for a sign.

That is, by the veil of an unknown tongue the words are darkened; it is restored.

Of God, so that they may not be seen by the unfaithful, so that when unknown tongues are heard, it may be a sign that this was done on account of unbelief, so that the hearer may not understand. Not indeed for those who believe, but for unbelievers: this is what he said, that tongues serve to conceal meanings from the unbelieving. But prophecy is not for unbelievers, but for those who believe. That is, it is not fitting for the faithful to hear tongues which they do not understand; but for the unbelievers, who are not worthy to understand, as Isaiah the prophet says: Go and say to this people: With the hearing of the ear you shall hear, and shall not understand

If therefore the whole Church come together in one place, and all speak with tongues, and there come in those that are unlearned or unbelievers, will they not say that you are mad?

It is clear that if all speak in diverse tongues, a kind of disordered tumult of the people occurs, as of one suffering from frenzy.

But if all prophesy, and there come in one that believes not, or one unlearned, he is convinced of all, he is judged of all: and thus the secrets of his heart are made manifest; and so falling down on his face he will worship God, declaring that God is truly among you. For when he understands and is understood, hearing God praised, and Christ worshipped, he sees clearly that this is a true and venerable religion, in which he sees nothing feigned, nothing done in darkness, as among the pagans, whose eyes are veiled; lest, seeing clearly what they call sacred, they should perceive themselves mocked by various vanities. For all imposture seeks darkness, and shows falsehood as truth; therefore among us there is nothing crafty, nothing under a veil: but simply one God is praised, of whom are all things, and one Lord Jesus, through whom are all things.

For if there were no one who understood, or by whom he himself might be examined, he could say it was a certain seduction and vanity, which is therefore sung in tongues, because it is a matter of shame if it is revealed.

What is it then, brothers?

When you come together, every one of you has a psalm: that is, he utters the praise of God through a song. Has a doctrine: that is, he has an exposition of meanings through spiritual prudence. Has a revelation: that is, prophecy of hidden things underlies him, which may reach the mind of all, by the favor of the Holy Spirit. Has a tongue: so that he might not sadden those who could speak with tongues, he permitted them to speak with tongues: yet in such a way, that interpretation should follow. Therefore he says: Has an interpretation; so that, if an interpreter were present, room would be given to speak with tongues.

Let all things be done unto edifying.

This is the conclusion, that nothing be done in vain in the Church, and that effort be made rather that even the unlearned may profit; lest any part of the body be, through inexperience, left in darkness. Therefore he wishes all to come prepared with diverse spiritual gifts; so that, watchful with the very eagerness of soul, exhorting one another, they might be zealous for the better gifts, unto the enlightenment of the brothers.

If any man speak in a tongue, let it be by two, or at the most by three, and that by course; and let one interpret.

That is, let not more than two or three speak with tongues: but individually, not all at once; lest they seem to be mad.

Therefore, at most three, lest those speaking in tongues, and their interpreters, occupy the whole day; and the prophets, who are the illuminators of the whole Church, have no time for discoursing on the Scriptures.

But if there be no interpreter, let him keep silence in the church; and let him speak to himself, and to God

that is, let him pray silently within himself, or speak to God, who hears all things even mute; for in the Church he ought to speak who profits all.

Let the prophets speak two or three, and let the others judge, or question them.

He kept the same measure in saying: Let two or three speak; each in turn, as above.

But he permitted the others to question concerning things which perhaps come into doubt, or which someone cannot grasp; since minds differ, so that they may be made clear by plainer discussion.

But if anything be revealed to another sitting by, let the first hold his peace

that is, let the greater yield to the lesser, that he may speak if he can: and let him not take it amiss; because a gift may be given to that one too, that he may speak, when the lesser is seen to have that which is not granted to the greater. For just as the whole cannot be granted to one, though he be the greater; so also nothing at all can be withheld from another, though he be lesser; so that no one may be empty of the grace of God.

For you may all prophesy one by one; that all may learn, and all may be exhorted.

This is the tradition of the Synagogue, which he wishes us to follow; because he writes indeed to Christians, but to those made from the Gentiles, not from the Jews; so that, sitting, they might dispute, the elders by dignity in the seats, the following in the lower benches, the newest on the pavement upon mats. To whom, if anything is revealed, he directs that a place for speaking should be given, and that they should not be despised; because they are members of the body.

the spirits of the prophets are subject to the prophets.

For because it is one and the same Spirit, who pours himself, according to the measure and quality of the causes, both into the prophets speaking of the future, and into those who reveal the Scriptures; therefore he said: Is subject to the prophets; so as to inflame minds with this hope, that the effort of the Spirit assists the good.

For with excellent desire he assists in the declaring of the things of God: so as to fulfill the will of a good purpose. For it is likewise said of the Saviour: And they drank of the spiritual rock that followed them, and the rock was Christ: that is, both to be subject, and also to follow; for it followed, so that, human aid failing, he might be present to give assistance. So also the Spirit is said to be subject, so that he assists good endeavors when he suggests; for he seems subject who completes another's undertakings.

For God is not the author of confusion, but of peace. Since therefore he is the author of peace, the Saviour saying: My peace I give unto you, my peace I leave with you; let no one prevent another from speaking, nor should anyone resist the speaker out of a desire to contradict; lest discord arise in the body. For those who are called in peace ought to be zealous for patience; lest the rights of peace be broken.

As in all the churches of the saints I teach.

By this statement he exhorts them to do what he commands; since he testifies that he teaches likewise in the churches of the saints.

Let your women keep silence in the churches.

Now he delivers what he had passed over; for above he directed that women should be veiled in the Church, now he shows that they should be quiet and modest: so that it is worthwhile, since they are veiled. For if man is the image of God, not woman, and she is subject to man by the law of nature; how much more ought they to be subject in the Church out of reverence for him who is God's ambassador, who is also the head of man! For it is not permitted unto them to speak, but to be in silence, as also the Law says. What does the Law say? Your desire shall be to your husband, and he shall rule over you.

This is a special law; from this Sarah called her husband Abraham lord: and therefore they are commanded to be in silence; lest the sentence of the aforesaid law be weakened, mindful of which Sarah was subject to her husband, as it is said. Although they are one flesh, yet for two reasons she is commanded to be subject; because she is from the man, and through her sin entered.

if they wish to learn anything, let them ask their husbands at home; for it is a shame for women to speak in the church.

It is a shame, because it is against discipline, that in the house of God, who has ordained them to be subject to their husbands, they should presume to speak concerning the Law; since they know that men there hold primacy, and that it is more fitting for them to devote themselves in the house of God to prayers, keeping their tongue still: and to open their ears; so that they may hear how the mercy of God has conquered death, which reigned through them, through Christ. For if they dare to speak in the church, it is disgraceful; because they are veiled for this reason, that they may appear humbled: but they show themselves shameless, which is also a reproach to their husbands; for in the insolence of women, husbands too are marked.

What, came the word of God out from you?

Or came it unto you only?

These are the words of one rebuking; for they were so puffed up, as if this salvation had been promised to them alone; and as if by their example the other nations were called to the faith, or as if there were none others who could receive the grace of God when the apostles preached. For they boasted as though they were conferring a benefit rather than receiving one, in coming to the faith; whence he says: Or came it unto you only? For everyone who wishes to buy something which he knows is not sought by others, approaches the purchase with a certain disdain, as if he were about to grant a benefit to the seller.

Therefore the Apostle rebukes this in the Corinthians, who showed themselves such, out of an elation of vanity; as if, had they not obeyed the words of the faith, there would have been no one to believe, just as he says to the Jews: It was necessary that the word of this life should first be spoken to you: but seeing you reject it, and judge yourselves unworthy of eternal life, behold we turn to the Gentiles.

If any man seem to be a prophet, or spiritual, let him acknowledge the things that I write unto you, that they are the commandments of the Lord.

Saying this, he touches upon the aforementioned false apostles, by whom they had been led astray, who, in accordance with the desires of men, taught not divine but earthly things.

Therefore he says here that he delivers nothing of his own, but of the Lord; so that those whom he persuades might be seen to be acquired for God, not for men: with this confidence he also preaches constantly, having a free conscience; because he does not wish to please men, but God. Whence he does not flatter sinners, that they should grow worse: but admonishes them to cease.

But if any man know not, he shall not be known.

Rightly, because he who does not know that what the Apostle speaks is of the Lord, he too shall be unknown by the Lord in the day of judgment, the Lord saying: Amen I say to you, I know you not.

Wherefore, brothers, be zealous to prophesy.

Although he rebukes these, and in many things reproves and corrects them, because they had departed from his tradition; yet he calls them brothers, because Isaiah says to the people of the Lord: Say to them that walk not rightly in my ways: You are our brothers.

So therefore, to console them after his rebukes, he calls them brothers: and he exhorts them to zeal for prophecy, that through continual discussion and explanation of the divine law they might become better instructed; so that they might learn how perverse were the preachings of the false apostles.

And forbid not to speak with tongues.

This too is for the sake of charity, that those who can speak with tongues, if an interpreter be present, should not be forbidden, lest dissension arise.

Let all things be done decently and in order; that is, according to the order stated above.

That is done decently, which is done with peace and discipline.

Moreover, brothers, I declare unto you the gospel which I preached unto you, which also you have received, and wherein you stand, by which also you are saved, which also I announced to you by word, you ought to hold fast; unless you have believed in vain. He shows them that if in this matter which is at issue, they have been seduced from his tradition, they have lost what they believed; for all the hope of believers lies in this understanding; that the dead shall rise. But what he says: Wherein you stand, he says to those who were firm in the faith of this tradition; for he speaks indiscriminately, so that both those who are in the faith may rejoice: and those who waver may grieve at being rebuked, and be corrected.

For I delivered unto you first of all, that Christ died for our sins according to the Scriptures. He recalls the Scriptures of the Old Testament which foretold the future passion of the Lord.

For Isaiah the prophet says: As a sheep he was led to the slaughter. And among other things: For his life shall be taken away from the earth, he was led to death for the iniquities of my people: these things are recognized as found in Christ. But because it seems to signify past time, that is not against it; because with God, who foreknows all things, nothing is future; therefore what is future for us is spoken of as though it had been done. For in the Apocalypse of John the apostle it is said: The Lamb that was slain from the foundation of the world. Because it will not happen otherwise than God knows, it is said to have been done; for it happens for us, not for God, since with God nothing is spoken of as future. And in the Psalm it says: The Lord has reigned from the tree. And Moses signified thus concerning his cross, saying: Then you shall see your life hanging before your eyes, and you shall not believe.

Therefore in this same matter a signification of the future tense is sometimes used; lest the perverse should deny that it was said of Christ, if it signified everything as wholly past.

that he was buried.

No one doubts that the one who died was buried, as Isaiah the prophet says: And I will give the wicked for his burial.

And that he rose again the third day according to the Scriptures.

All things are enclosed within the faith; therefore, under the person of the people, the resurrection of the Lord on the third day to come was described. For Hosea the prophet says: After two days he will heal us, and on the third day we shall rise again, and live in his sight. No believer denies that all rose in Christ, just as all died in Adam. In like manner in the Psalm, under the person of man, it also signifies concerning Christ, saying: You have put all things under his feet: you have crowned him with glory and honor.

that he was seen by Cephas: that is, Peter.

This the disciples also said to Cleopas and his companion, as in the Gospel according to Luke, that he appeared to Peter alone. Afterward to those eleven. And this is contained in the Gospel.

Then he was seen by more than five hundred brothers at once.

He speaks this on his own faith.

Of whom many remain until this present, but some have fallen asleep.

Concerning those to whom the Lord appeared after the resurrection, he says that many of them were then still living in the body.

After that he was seen by James.

He appeared to James singly, as also to Peter: which I think was done for this reason, that manifold appearances might confirm the faith of the resurrection. Then by all the apostles. Again he was seen by all the apostles on the mountain, where Jesus had appointed them, as Matthew the evangelist relates. Before that, in Jerusalem, eight days after his resurrection, that is, on the Lord's day, with the doors shut, he entered to the disciples, so that Thomas's mind might be strengthened, as John the apostle says. On the mountain, it is understood, he gave them his commands.

last of all he was seen also by me, as by one born out of due time.

He appeared to him first in heaven, afterward while he was praying in the temple. He called himself untimely born; because, born out of time in Christ, he received the apostolate when Christ had already been received into heaven with his flesh.

For I am the least of the apostles. He humbles himself, and ascribes the cause to time; for he is lesser in time, not in dignity. But because he had also been a persecutor, he bows himself, saying: Who am not worthy to be called an apostle; because I persecuted the Church of God. But by the grace of God I am what I am. He gives glory to God, who chose him; and he does not claim his own dignity for himself, but calls himself unworthy. Whence he truly merits more, knowing that the Lord has said: He that humbles himself shall be exalted.

And his grace in me has not been in vain.

He says this, because he did not receive lesser grace in the apostolate on account of having been a persecutor. But I labored more abundantly than they all. He adds to this, that not only was he not diminished, but he was even more afflicted on account of the constancy with which he flourished in Christ: which, not taking it ill, made him the more worthy. Yet not I, but the grace of God with me. Lest he should be thought to have exalted himself boastfully, he humbles himself at once, since he ascribes this very thing not so much to himself as to the grace of God; so that he might always refer all glory back to God, whence he is rightly to be exalted.

Whether then I, or they, so we preach, and so you have believed.

This is what he indicated above, that he had not received a lesser grace in preaching than the other apostles, but one and the same grace. Whence he all the more accuses the faithlessness of the Corinthians, because, whereas this belief had been made manifest among all the churches, these had fallen away from that faith and hope, which he subjoined, saying:

Now if Christ is preached, that he rose from the dead; how do some among you say that there is no resurrection of the dead?

But if there is no resurrection of the dead, then Christ is not risen. And if Christ is not risen, our preaching is vain, and your faith is vain also. These things had been handed down by false apostles, who asserted that Christ was neither born, nor suffered in the flesh, nor rose again; whom the apostle John also brands, because they denied that Christ had come in the flesh.

Whence he says: He who denies that Christ has come in the flesh, this is Antichrist; and he who denies the Son, has not the Father either. These men were going about, and were overturning the faith of some, lest, being unwary, they should be judged foolish by the wise of the world; because the wise of this age judge it foolish when they hear of the resurrection of the dead. But if, he says, it is true that Christ has not risen, then we are false preachers, and your faith is vain. For this they believed, when the Apostle preached, that the dead will rise, and by this hope they were drawn to the faith. He asserts that this would surely turn to their detriment, if they had believed what is not to be; and it is a matter of shame for anyone to profess that he has believed what is false.

He therefore both instills shame in them, and calls their labors fruitless, if what they heard from the false apostles is true, that the dead do not rise: which surely no one wishes to hear said of himself; so that, seeing this to be against them, they might return to their first faith.

Yea, and we are found false witnesses of God; because we have testified against God that he raised up Christ, whom he raised not up.

He who asserts that God raised Christ from the dead is a false witness, if it was not done; yet he proclaims the power of God, not indeed as an enemy, who ascribes so wonderful a deed to his power. But if it is true that he raised Christ from the dead, what is to be said of the one who is both a false witness against God, and asserts his work to be folly?

For if the dead do not rise, neither has Christ risen. And if Christ has not risen, your faith is vain; for you are yet in your sins. Then also they who have fallen asleep in Christ have perished. He terrifies them, so that, since no one wishes ill for himself, they may grieve that they have begun to believe this, which is against themselves. For who would not wish to hear that his sins are forgiven?

He adds this to increase the terror, because they do not wish to reckon the passing of their loved ones to be perdition. For those who departed from the world under this hope, or who did not fear to be killed, because they believed they would rise again after the example of Christ—if this is not true, they have perished. He says this to them, which through love of their departed ones they refuse to hear; so that he may cut off from them what earlier, through error, they wished to hear.

If in this life only we have hope in Christ, we are of all men most miserable.

It is manifest that we hope in Christ both in this present life and in the future; for Christ does not desert his servants here, but gives them grace, and in the future they will be in eternal glory. But if there were no hope of the future life, we would be, as he said, more miserable than all men. For to what end would fasting, watchings, departures, a clean life, righteousness, mercy, death serve, if there is no reward for these in the future? But the unbelievers at least enjoy this life.

But now Christ has risen from the dead, the first-fruits of them that sleep; for since by man came death, and by man the resurrection of the dead.

In saying this, he touches upon the false prophets, who denied that Christ was born, and by this denied that the flesh had risen; because he who was not born, does not die either. But he thus proves that Christ rose from the dead, because he was man, so that there is no doubt that a man was raised up from the dead by God; so that, since through man's sin death was found, Christ's righteousness earned the resurrection of the dead.

For as in Adam all die, so also in Christ shall all be made alive. He says this, because just as Adam, by sinning, found death, and held all in it from his origin, so that they should be dissolved: so also Christ, by not sinning, and thereby conquering death (for he who does not sin conquers death, because death comes from sin), acquired life, that is, resurrection, for all who are of his body. Although therefore he has granted a general resurrection, so that, just as in Adam all, whether just or unjust, die; so also in Christ all, both believers and unbelievers, shall rise, though the unbelievers to punishment; nevertheless they are seen to be made alive, because they will receive their bodies, no longer to die, but to suffer punishment in them without end: which they refused to believe.

But every man in his own order.

Now he wishes to expound the order of the resurrection, lest they should think it fabulous because it has not yet come to pass in the rest: he expounds to them the orders and the times, when it was done, and when it is to be, that the dead may rise. The first-fruits Christ. As it is testified in the Acts of the Apostles to have been written in Moses. If Christ was to be capable of suffering, if he was to be the first to rise from the dead. He therefore rose first, so that it might become sure to those who believe in him. Afterward they that are Christ's, who have believed in his coming. This is to be understood in a twofold way; for both at his second coming the saints will rise, according to the teaching of John's Apocalypse, just as also at his first coming, when he rose, many bodies of the saints rose, as a testimony to death conquered and despoiled.

Under one expression, then, he comprehends the twofold coming of the Lord.

Then comes the end, when he shall have delivered up the kingdom to God and the Father, when he shall have put down all rule and all authority and power.

For he must reign, until he has put all enemies under his feet; for he has put all things under his feet. The last enemy that shall be destroyed is death. He says this, because when the kingdom has been delivered up, there will be an end of the world, the resurrection having been fulfilled. Some, terrified by the harshness of the wording, while wishing, as it were, to feel piously, deviate from the proper sense. For they shudder at hearing the words: When he shall have delivered up the kingdom to God and the Father; thinking that by this delivering up of the kingdom, if understood according to the sound of the words, it would remain empty; as if, by delivering it up, he no longer had it—as though the Father, by handing over all things to the Son, had emptied himself.

For the Lord himself says: All things are delivered to me by my Father; and afterward: And this is life eternal, that they may know you, the only true God, and Jesus Christ whom you have sent. Behold, when the Son reigns, the Father reigns also. But how could it be believed that the Son, in delivering up the kingdom, empties himself, when the angel says to Mary: And the Lord God shall give unto him the throne of his father David; and he shall reign over the house of Jacob for ever, and of his kingdom there shall be no end? And Daniel says of that same kingdom, among other things: The God of heaven shall raise up another kingdom, which shall never be destroyed; and this kingdom shall be everlasting. Let no one, then, doubt that the Son shall reign forever with the Father.

But this delivering up of the kingdom means that, when all things have been made subject to the Son, and they have worshipped him as God, death having been destroyed; then the Son will show them that he is not that from which all things are, but that through whom all things are: and this will be the delivering up of the kingdom to God and the Father—to show that he himself is that from whom every fatherhood in heaven and on earth is named: and then shall be the end. The destruction of death, however, is the resurrection of the dead.

But when he says: All things are put under him, it is manifest that he is excepted who did put all things under him.

And when all things shall be subdued unto him, then shall the Son also himself be subject unto him that put all things under him, that God may be all in all. This is the same sense which he now discloses; that he may make manifest what it is for the Son to deliver up the kingdom to God and the Father: but this he adds to the sense, because the Father, in delivering the kingdom to the Son, has not subjected himself to him, as the Son has subjected himself to the Father; for it would be improper for the Father to be subjected to the Son. The Father, therefore, subjected all things to the Son, that he might be honored in like manner as the Father is honored.

When, then, all things shall have confessed Christ to be God, laid beneath his feet; then Christ the Lord himself also will be subjected to God the Father: That God may be all in all. He says this, because when the pride of all principalities and powers and dominions has been crushed, and they have worshipped Christ as God: then Christ also, on account of the sole authority of the Father, will indeed show himself to be God, but God from God; so that the sublime and ineffable authority of the one first principle may remain. This is the Son's subjecting himself to the Father, this is that God should be all in all; because when every creature learns that its head is Christ, and that the head of Christ is God the Father; God the Father is all in all, that is, so that every creature should feel one thing, so that with one voice every tongue of things heavenly, earthly, and infernal should confess that there is one God, from whom are all things.

But if he had said: That God may be in all things; it would be understood that he is in all things indeed, but through affection, or a common sense of things, not, however, that these very things are from him. But when he said: All in all; he signified by this both that they are from him, and that he is in them: from him, because they were created by him; but in them, because in the confession of all he is the one God. Yet the Son is not subjected to the Father in the same way that a creature is subjected to the Son.

Otherwise what shall they do who are baptized for the dead, if the dead rise not at all?

Why then are they baptized for them? He wishes to show the resurrection of the dead to be so ratified and firm, that he gives the example of those who were so confident of the future resurrection that they were even baptized for the dead, if death had perhaps overtaken someone before baptism: fearing lest he who had not been baptized should either rise badly, or not rise at all, they had a living person baptized in the name of the dead one. Whence he subjoined: Why then are they baptized for them? By this example he does not approve of what they did, but shows their fixed faith in the resurrection.

why do we stand in jeopardy every hour?

I die daily, for your glory, which I have in the Lord. By saying: Why do we stand in jeopardy? He distinguished the persons, showing that those who were baptized for the dead were not orthodox. For he had said above: Why then are they baptized for them?—not, why are we baptized for them? For Jephthah too, although in a matter which could not become acceptable, was found faithful, offering his daughter according to his vow, which he had foolishly vowed; it is not therefore the deed that is approved, but perseverance of faith that is set forth as an example. He recalls the perils and labors of preachers, saying: Why are we in jeopardy? And it is to be understood: except because we hope for the future resurrection, as he recalls above. For being assured that after this death true life will follow, they do not fear the perils inflicted by unbelievers on account of their zeal for those whom, believing they have lost, they grieve for.

He therefore shows his concern which he had for their salvation, on account of the glory promised by the Lord, as it is also said in the Law: Lift up your voice like a trumpet; if they hear you, you shall gain their souls. To this the Apostle always hastened, ever anxious that his glory before God might grow from the salvation of many acquired.

If after the manner of men I have fought with beasts at Ephesus, what does it profit me, if the dead rise not?

That is, if according to human sense (which, seeing that this does not fall within the nature of things, that flesh once dissolved should be reformed to life, scarcely believes the future resurrection of the dead) I did not fear to be exposed to beasts, to die, I have profited nothing. But it is not so; for, being certain of the promised life, he not only did not fear, but even gladly allowed himself to be exposed to beasts, as he says among other things in the Acts of the Apostles: For I am ready not only to be bound, but also to die at Jerusalem for the name of the Lord Jesus Christ. Let us eat and drink, for tomorrow we die.

This was said by the prophet Isaiah concerning those who, as if nothing were to come after death, cared only for the belly, like cattle, just as also those who were corrupting the Corinthians.

Be not deceived: evil communications corrupt good manners.

He indicates that a good purpose can be overturned by conversation with evil men; for the constant habit of wicked conversation corrupts the mind, and for this reason such men are to be avoided. For whoever wishes to keep the faith he has received must especially avoid those who clamor against him at the very beginnings; that he may accomplish what he has judged useful.

Awake, be righteous, and sin not.

He admonishes them to be watchful, lest, ensnared by the deception of a depraved understanding and led away from the faith, they be corrupted by not believing the resurrection of the dead. He bids them be righteous, that they may cultivate not only earthly righteousness, but also heavenly; for earthly righteousness does not merit reward, just as it does not render one guilty. For what great thing is it not to take another's property, since this is a matter of fear? But it is a great thing to bestow of one's own on one who has not; this is true righteousness. And he added that they should not sin; whence he wished it to be understood that he did not mean temporal righteousness to be kept, but divine righteousness; for he who keeps heavenly righteousness is without doubt perfect in this present life.

For some have not the knowledge of God: I speak this to your shame. Those among them who were converted, not knowing the purpose of God, said it was foolish to believe that the dead would rise. Therefore he instills shame in them as being imprudent; for they believed those who, having no knowledge of God, taught against the decrees of God.

But some man will say: How are the dead raised up?

And with what body do they come? These he said have no knowledge of God, whose depraved opinions he set forth in words, saying: How are the dead raised up? With what body do they come? To this he fittingly responds, saying:

Foolish one, that which you sow is not quickened, except it die.

He does not deal here with a natural man on the authority of the Law; so as to persuade by examples, which if the man received, he would not err: but by physical reasoning, in which the man flatters himself, so as not to believe that dissolved and dead bodies can rise. For he shows that dead things are again restored to life, and multiplied; that human error may be confounded.

that which you sow, you sow not that body that shall be, but bare grain, it may chance of wheat, or of some other grain: but God gives it a body as it has pleased him, and to every seed his own body. If, then, a bare grain is sown, and by the will of God, in a manner through the ministry of the elements, it rises clothed, bearing with it much increase of benefit to man; why should it not be believable that by the power of God the dead can rise, only its substance improved, not multiplied in number? What then is required of the unbeliever, as to what body the dead shall rise with, when examples go before, pointing to this end of an improved resurrection, not of substance lost? For each will receive his own body, in which Adam was created, according to the examples given above.

All flesh is not the same flesh: but there is one flesh of men, another flesh of beasts, another of fishes, and another of birds.

Since all flesh comes from the same substance, whence and how is there such diversity among these, that one and the same expenditure produced diverse kinds? Let the sophists of the world and the searchers of the stars say now, if they are able to comprehend what is outside themselves, when they do not know what is within themselves. Indeed, all the philosophers of the world, who were unwilling to humble their minds to the law of God, so as to receive its faith, always asserting things diverse and contrary, confounded one another with the most vain disputations; because in none of these was any recognized token of the testimony of truth found, which, placed before their words, could commend their doctrine, as God ordained for our discipline, which is proved not by words, but by power, which words cannot resist.

Just as, then, from one and the same substance the flesh of living creatures is diverse; so also men of one flesh will be diverse in dignity in the resurrection; so that each will appear such as was his merit: since even here we see diversity of bodies.

There are also celestial bodies, and bodies terrestrial: but the glory of the celestial is one, and the glory of the terrestrial is another.

Celestial bodies belong to those who are rising again, but terrestrial belong to those before they die or rise; so that, because Christ is celestial, bodies from him are called celestial: but from Adam, because he is earthly, bodies are called terrestrial.

There is one glory of the sun, another glory of the moon, and another glory of the stars: for one star differs from another star in glory.

He uses the comparison of one nature to give account of an undifferentiated substance; because just as the sun and moon and stars, though of one nature, are yet of diverse brightness: so also men, though of one kind, will nevertheless deservedly be dissimilar in glory; so that the dignity of those who have the hundredfold measure be made equal to the brightness of the sun, who, in order to be perfect, strove for the first degree, of whom it is said: Then shall the righteous shine as the sun in the kingdom of their Father. To lunar brightness are to be compared those who have merited the sixtyfold measure through good works; that they might have the merit of the second degree. But to the brighter stars are to be compared the merits of those who sought the thirtyfold measure, the dignity of the third degree, through righteous labors.

But to the following stars, which are intermediate between the bright and the dimmer, sinful men are to be joined, who wished to obtain the honor of none of the three degrees. But to the dim stars, and the last of all, the resurrection of the faithless is like; for having followed error, they are to be compared to stars leading into error, as the apostle Jude says in his epistle. For unbelief cannot have a bright resurrection; those stars proclaim and display; but this is the Roman reading, since the examples of resurrection proclaim this faith of an improved, not a lost, substance; because just as a coal, covered by its own ash, is darkened, so also these, surrounded by the darkness of error through their faithlessness, will lack light.

So also is the resurrection of the dead.

He gives examples, so that there may be no doubt of the future resurrection of the dead; so that once the reasoning is accepted, no one may hesitate. It is sown in corruption, it shall rise in incorruption. To sow is to bury, that it may be corrupted: but to rise in incorruption is, once raised up, to be no longer able to be corrupted, but to have the brightness of immortality.

It is sown in dishonor, it shall rise in glory. It is sown in dishonor, because while it is placed in a foul place, it becomes fetid, and swarms with worms: but it shall rise in glory, because, raised up, it will also be light, and will suffer no injury of squalor. It is sown in weakness, it shall rise in power. It is sown in weakness, because it is immobile and unmanageable: but it shall rise in power, because it will now be wholly one and vigorous.

It is sown a natural body, it shall rise a spiritual body. If there is a natural body, there is also a spiritual. The body is natural while it is sustained by food, that it may live: but it is spiritual when it will need none of these things, being turned into life. All that has been said above is enclosed in this sense; for nothing else is contained in the foregoing, except that the natural body dies, and a spiritual body will rise, which will neither eat, nor drink, nor be weak, nor be fetid, nor foul by nature.

The first man Adam was made a living soul.

This is said in Genesis, that having received the breath of the spirit of God, man was made into a living soul; for it is the office of the spirit to animate the body, yet in such a way that it does not have continuous life, unless it uses the help of food and drink. The last Adam was made a quickening spirit: that is, so that he who before had been made into a soul is now made into a spirit through the resurrection; so that he cannot die, because he will become wholly living.

Howbeit that was not first which is spiritual; for the natural is from Adam, but the spiritual is through Christ and the resurrection of the dead.

The first man is of the earth, earthy: the second man is of heaven, heavenly.

Such as is the earthy, such are they also that are earthy: and such as is the heavenly, such are they also that are heavenly. The first man Adam is of the earth, temporal, to whom death succeeds: the second man, Christ, is of heaven, who, rising, knows not death. As is that earthly one, so are they also who are earthly: that is, because the earthly man is mortal, those who are earthly are mortal also: for Adam, by sinning, found death, so that all from him are mortal. And as is that heavenly one, so are they also who are heavenly: that is, because Christ did not sin, conquering death, he is heavenly; so also let believers be: although even unbelievers are to become spiritual, but as things spiritual of wickedness, so that they may be full of darkness.

For he speaks now of the saints, who shall rise to glory; for just as those who do not believe are already judged, so those who believe are already called heavenly.

Therefore as we have borne the image of the earthy, let us bear also the image of the heavenly: that is, just as we had the form of mortality through the sin of Adam, made servants of sin: so let us also have the form of life through the righteousness of the Savior, made servants of righteousness, not of the world, but of God; while we do those things which are worthy of immortality.

Now this I say, brethren, that flesh and blood cannot possess the kingdom of God.

By flesh he wishes faithlessness to be understood, and by blood a shameful and luxurious life, because this desire is generated from the ardor of the blood; so that he might show that not only the unbeliever does not have a worthy resurrection, but also he who obeys the desires and vices of the flesh. He therefore admonishes and instructs, by what reasoning we may deserve to obtain the kingdom of heaven.

Neither shall corruption possess incorruption.

He says this, because corruption and the wantonness of life must necessarily suffer punishment. For he has here put corruption for the suffering of it; for it is certain that all men will rise immortal.

Behold, I tell you a mystery: We shall all rise indeed; that is, both believers and unbelievers.

But we shall not all be changed. Now he signifies the merit of each in the resurrection, what will be for each one.

In a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, that is, quickly, without any delay.

At the last trump; called last, because the final war is waged against demons, and principalities, and powers, and the devil himself. For this will happen after a thousand years, in which the Savior will reign here, Antichrist having been destroyed, when Satan will be released from his prison to seduce the nations of Gog and Magog, who are demons, that they may fight against the camps of the saints; for temporal men will not be able to fight against eternal beings. For the apostle John also says: I saw Michael and his angels fighting in heaven against the dragon and his angels, who is the devil and Satan.

Therefore he says here "last trump," because it is not the first time war has been waged against him; for both in Antichrist there were false prophets, who worked signs and wonders before him, and he himself was victor, and here, at the last, war will be waged against him; that he may now be cast into hell. And the Savior says among other things: Now shall the prince of this world be cast out. And even then he was defeated often, as the prophet Isaiah says: How did Lucifer fall from heaven, who rose in the morning.

For the trumpet shall sound, and the dead shall rise incorrupt, and we shall be changed. For with sinners and the impious rising, the saints will be changed in brightness; so that the flesh may become spiritual with glory, like lead, if it should become gold. For the saints will rise at the coming of the Lord, as it says above

The first-fruits Christ: then afterward they that are Christ's at his coming, as is contained in the Apocalypse; for sinners are not Christ's, who hear from the Lord: I never knew you.

For it is also written in the first psalm: Therefore the wicked shall not rise in the judgment, nor sinners in the council of the just.

For nothing is required of the impious; but they will rise for this, that they may perish, seeing that what they refused to believe is true: but to perish is to be estranged from God, as he says to the Romans: For as many as have sinned without law shall also perish without law; and as many as have sinned in the law shall be judged by the law: and by this sinners shall be judged; for they are unworthy to rise with the saints, as he says: Nor sinners in the council of the just.

For this corruptible must put on incorruption, and this mortal must put on immortality. He said above, and the dead shall rise incorrupt, that is, they will be immortal, yet not impassible; for those of whom he speaks will suffer punishments according to the quality of their sins, so that they may go forth thence with the debt discharged: but the impious are tormented with eternal punishment; for he says: He that believes not is already judged. Whence also the prophet Isaiah says: Their fire shall not be quenched, and their worm shall not die. At the coming of the Lord, however, the saints too will rise, and those who are found alive will be caught up to meet the Lord in the air, to suffer death as it were a sleep; for in that very rapture they will have both death and resurrection, as the same Apostle writes to the Thessalonians.

For in the time of Antichrist the rest of the gentiles will either be apostates, or guilty, or in hiding places, or placed under punishment, whom the Lord Jesus, with their leader Antichrist himself, will slay at his coming with the spirit of his mouth, that is, at his command they will be burned with fire by the angels of his power.

So when this mortal shall have put on immortality, then shall be brought to pass the saying that is written: Death is swallowed up in victory.

O death, where is your victory? O death, where is your sting? For after the resurrection of the impious and of sinners, death will be swallowed up in victory. For these are the words of one exulting, saying: O death, where is your victory? O death, where is your sting? For the victory of death conquered is the resurrection of the dead: but death is the devil, over whom exultation is expressed; and he is called contentious, because through pride, though unequal in strength, he resisted. When, then, being overcome, he is destroyed and his spoils are stripped from him; he who fought against himself is reproached.

The sting of death is sin.

He signifies the sting as authority, because death received authority through sin, as though, sin not existing, the devil would have been benumbed, and death would not exist. And the strength of sin is the law. The strength of sin is therefore the law, because sin would not be imputed, if there were no law.

But thanks be to God, who gives us the victory through our Lord Jesus Christ.

He says that the triumph of the Savior has profited us; for what the Savior did, he did not do for himself, but for us. Therefore it is our victory; for he was made man for this reason, remaining God, that, conquering the devil, since he did not commit sin, he might acquire victory for us, who were held in death by reason of sin; so that the devil, overcome by the death of Christ, who had not sinned, might lose all whom he held by reason of sin. But while he exults over man, he was made guilty, and thus the handwriting was blotted out, that is, the sentence by which the human race was held in death was blotted out, and it was made free, and souls were brought into heaven; so that they might be taken away not by power, but by justice, from God through our Lord Jesus Christ.

Therefore, my beloved brethren, be steadfast and unmovable, always abounding in the work, knowing that your labor is not in vain in the Lord. Having set forth all that is necessary for ordering the discipline of the Church, and having shown what is to be avoided or followed, he now exhorts them to be fixed in the good, and always ready and abundant in the works which bear fruit before the Lord; because through these things which have been set forth, they will thereafter receive the reward of good work from the Lord, so that they may not be overturned by wicked conversations.

Now concerning the collections which are made for the saints, as I have given order to the churches of Galatia, so also do you.

Upon the first day of the week let every one of you lay by him in store, treasuring up whatsoever he shall be pleased to give; that there be no collections when I come. He commands that a collection be made on the Lord's day, as he had also arranged for the other churches; so that on that day on which the Lord rose again, his people should be gathered together for the praise and glory of God, death having been conquered: then the expenses to be gathered for the ministry of the saints, who for the name of the Lord suffered oppression through the zeal of gentiles or Jews, who would not permit them to preach the grace of God under the name of Christ; that they might have refreshment from those on whose account they were being afflicted.

He therefore bids the people be gathered together every Lord's day, and be assembled, as much as they will, unto the gifts of God, and that each should lay this by himself as it were in a treasury; so that when the Apostle comes, it may be found prepared for the necessary uses; because what is gathered gradually is neither burdensome, and a great amount is found.

when I come, whomsoever you shall approve by your letters, them will I send to bring your liberality unto Jerusalem.

This consolation had a twofold benefit, as it also has now; so that it might profit both the saints mentioned above, and the poor established in the church, which even now profits both those of greater age and the needy. He says he will send by letter those whom they have chosen as fit for the dispensation: which letters furnish testimony for those sent, that they may be received with favor.

if it be meet that I go also, they shall go with me.

He says this, that if the collection should be abundant, he too could go; for it is fitting, and thus the work is such, that if he himself goes, he may bring much with him for the refreshment of the saints. This is what he signifies to the Romans, saying: For if the Gentiles have been made partakers of their spiritual things, their duty is also to minister unto them in carnal things; for they were of the Jews, of whom the Lord says, that salvation is of the Jews, who at Jerusalem were in great disfavor among the unbelieving Jews.

Now I will come unto you, when I shall pass through Macedonia: for I do pass through Macedonia.

And it may be that I will abide, yea, and winter with you, that you may bring me on my journey whithersoever I go. After all his instruction, in order to make them glad, he promised them his coming, by which he also confirms all his admonitions with which he corrects them the more. For he who hears that he is coming, from whom he received the law, will be more anxious, lest at his arrival he should be put to shame.

For I do not wish to see you now merely in passing. Knowing that he has much to do with them, he does not wish to see them merely in passing, and lest they be saddened, he promises that he will stay a long time with them; because what he does, he does with foresight. For I hope to remain with you some time, if the Lord permit.

If the Lord—for then the Lord permits him to stay with them: he says "permit," if they show themselves worthy, correcting the faults which he charges against them.

But I will remain at Ephesus until Pentecost; for a great and effectual door is opened to me, and there are many adversaries.

He shows the reason why he remained at Ephesus; for he had found there hearts thirsting for the grace of God, into which he might pour the mystery of Christ. But because the devil is always restless, and envious of those who desire God. He added: And many adversaries; for the more they were found suited for the faith, the more there were those who were jealous, contradicting and resisting the teaching of the Lord.

Now if Timothy come, see that he may be without fear among you; for he works the work of the Lord, as I also do.

Let no man therefore despise him.

For although Timothy preached those things which he had received from the Apostle, and was a fit evangelist; yet because he did not have the same authority, he commends him, lest perhaps by those who were dissenting among the people he should not be received as he deserved, and his coming should profit nothing for their salvation. For the Gentiles too might be roused to sedition and discord among the people, taking the occasion to rush upon Timothy; therefore let no man despise him, because he works the work of the Lord, he says, as I also do; that is, that he be received by my authority, which he had as an apostle; for he himself was a bishop. Conduct him forth in peace, that he may come to me; for I look for him with the brethren.

He recalls so great a merit of Timothy, that he not only bids him be honored among them, but shows that he, as an apostle of the Lord, is to be escorted with deference; so that the Apostle himself would wait for him with the brethren for the sake of the Gospel of Christ. But as touching brother Apollo, I give you to understand that I much entreated him to come to you with the brethren; and it was not at all his will to come now. But he will come when he shall have opportunity. In saying this, he shows both that he satisfied their will or request, when he manifested to them his own wish, and that he excused Apollo—without declaring why he was not going to them, yet in such a way that he did not entirely excuse him, but rather deferred the matter.

It can also be understood in this way: that through Apollo he touches upon them, signifying that Apollo was unwilling to go to them because they were at variance; so that, hearing this, they might be zealous for peace; and that is why he said of Timothy: See that he be without fear among you; because some who had been sent were not well received: and hence Apollo would come when they became of one mind.

Watch, stand fast in the faith, do manfully, be strengthened: let all your things be done in charity.

Watch, he says, lest they be circumvented in the faith. Do manfully—that is, to admonish them to be strong regarding the things which had been handed down to them: not as children, who do not know what to follow. Be strengthened, that they may be robust as much in word as in deed; for profession and good deeds make men perfect.

But he admonishes that these very things be done in charity

because things done with charity have the fear and zeal of God; for whatever is done to the offense of a brother bears no fruit. For some are to be provoked to good, not saddened—as, for instance, if you do not show mercy because of another's dissuasion, or if you are inhuman, or you mark others out, or you eat something, insulting him who abstains from it, so as to cause him a scruple. All things must be so done that the exhortation be toward better things, not an insult, and then there is peace.

Hence the Lord says: by this it is known if you are my disciples, if you love one another; but where there is contention and dissension, there is no love.

I beseech you, brethren—you know the house of Stephanas and Fortunatus, that they are the firstfruits of Achaia, and have devoted themselves to the ministry of the saints—that you also be subject to such, and to every one that helps with the work and labors. The Achaians are Corinthians; and so he speaks to them of these men, by whom he provokes them to a like work; for they are of their number. For this is great in Christians, that, avarice being trampled underfoot, they give generously from their labors to those who have not, becoming imitators of God the Father, who is rich in mercy.

But when he says: That you be subject to such men, he exhorts them all the more: that, having become rivals of this work, they may themselves have others subject to them.

I rejoice in the presence of Stephanas, and Fortunatus, and Achaicus; because what was lacking on your part, they themselves have supplied.

For they have refreshed both my spirit and yours. Know therefore them that are such. For it is one thing to make the collection which he says is done for the saints, and another to render recompense to the ministers of the Gospel, as the Lord says: For the laborer is worthy of his hire. For he signifies the house of Stephanas devoted in both respects—both in the ministry of the saints, and among those who served the Church; so that they, with the brethren Fortunatus and Achaicus, might be of profit to the Apostle; that these too, who were of their number, might profit. Hence he says: For they have refreshed both my spirit and yours.

And when the Apostle denies that he would accept anything from them—for he says: This boasting shall not be made void in me in the regions of Achaia—how then have they refreshed both my spirit and yours? But I believe his spirit was refreshed in those in whom they had made progress; for he says it is given to him what profits those whom he has willed. Know therefore them that are such—that is, imitate them.

The churches of Asia salute you.

By their greeting he admonishes them to become like those who are of one province. Aquila and Priscilla salute you much in the Lord, with the church that is in their house. He mentions two churches, the public and the domestic: he calls that public in which all come together; that domestic in which a gathering takes place through friendship. Wherever the presbyters celebrate the solemn rites, it is called a church.

All the brethren salute you.

He lifts up their spirits, when he shows all these to be mindful of them. Salute one another with a holy kiss.

The holy kiss is a sign of peace, by which he teaches that, discord being set aside, they should cleave to one another.

The salutation of me Paul with mine own hand.

He shows that he has subscribed this epistle himself, and he adds what the words of the subscription are, saying:

If any man love not the Lord Jesus Christ, let him be anathema, maranatha, which is interpreted: If any man love not the Lord Jesus who came, let him be cut off.

For maranatha signifies the Lord is come. This was said on account of the Jews who said that Jesus had not come; these, therefore, are anathema from the Lord who came.

The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you.

My love be with you all, in Christ Jesus. He set down such a subscription on account of those who, while they were zealous for dissension, did not love the Lord Jesus; since indeed they said: I am of Paul, I of Apollo, and I of Cephas.

For he who loves Christ does not give glory to men, because there is no hope in men. The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you; and it is understood: you who love the Lord Jesus. And since they did not love one another, he therefore says this: My love be with you all in Christ Jesus; that they might learn to love one another by that grace with which they were loved by the Apostle, not by carnal affection, but in Christ Jesus.