Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians

Then, fourteen years after, I went up again to Jerusalem with Barnabas, taking Titus also with me.

And I went up according to revelation: and communicated to them the Gospel which I preach among the Gentiles, but privately to them who seemed to be something; lest perhaps I should run, or had run, in vain. Since for a long time his fame was growing among all the Jews, but he was not seen in person, for he went about founding and strengthening the Church with his usual constancy among the Gentiles: but among the Jews, on account of the Law, an evil opinion of him was arising, as though he differed from the preaching of the other apostles; and hence a scruple arose in many, so that the Gentiles might be troubled, lest they be led into something other than what the apostles who were with the Lord handed down.

But because of false brethren unawares brought in, who came in privily to spy out our liberty which we have in Christ Jesus, that they might bring us into bondage; to whom we yielded not subjection, no, not for an hour; that the truth of the Gospel might continue with you. He denies that Titus, since he was a Greek like the Galatians, was circumcised. Having said this, he rebukes those who allowed themselves to be circumcised, though they were Greeks. But lest perhaps it be objected to him that he himself had circumcised Timothy, he now sets forth the reasons why he did what he denied should be done, saying: But because of false brethren unawares brought in, who came in privily to spy out our liberty which we have in Christ Jesus, that they might bring us into bondage, to whom we yielded in subjection for an hour, that the truth of the Gospel might continue with you.

The Greeks, on the contrary, say: We yielded not even for an hour, and they say this agrees with the case

because, they say, he who was forbidding it to be done ought not to say that he had done it, lest he prove that it ought to be done. But the apostle, a man of divine insight, knowing that this could be objected, himself puts it forward, to forestall the calumnious; and he gives the reasons by which he was compelled to do what he did not wish. Because of false brethren unawares brought in, he says. He calls them brought in unawares, because they entered with guile, showing themselves as brothers, though they were enemies. Who came in privily, that is, who entered with humility, feigning friendship. To spy out our liberty which we have in Christ Jesus, that they might bring us into bondage. To spy out is to enter in such a way as to feign one thing and seek another.

By which they might be able to accuse our liberty which we have in Christ Jesus.

This is liberty in Christ Jesus, not to be subject to the Law. That they might bring us into bondage: that is, they entered for this purpose, with guile and deceit, that they might subject our liberty to servitude, forcing us to be subject to the law of circumcision. To whom we yielded in subjection for an hour; that is, we subjected ourselves for an hour to servitude, humbling ourselves to the Law; so that, Timothy having been circumcised, the deceit and scandal of the Jews might cease. For they were ready, as may be understood, to stir up tumult and sedition. For this was the occasion by which they might have access to make an accusation; for Timothy had a Jewish mother, but a Greek father: whence it came about that, according to the Law, the infant had not been circumcised.

But the Apostle, wishing to take him along, that he might ordain him bishop, as he did (because, he says, all in that place bore him good testimony), suffered the snares of the Jews. For they were watching to see whether he would receive an uncircumcised son of a Jewess, preparing sedition; because if he objected that the Greeks should not be circumcised, as also the letter had been given by the apostles concerning this matter, he would not, on the other hand, forbid the sons of Israel to be circumcised; because the apostles had signified nothing of this in that same letter: on whose authority the Jewish believers were the more served; because the letter itself did not forbid Jews to circumcise their sons. Then, he says, taking him he circumcised him because of the Jews who were in those places.

But from the Gentiles they had no scandal, whence Titus was not compelled to be circumcised.

For an hour, then, he yielded; that the truth of the Gospel might remain with the Gentiles, since they do not subject themselves to circumcision. But among the Jews the truth of the Gospel was not present; because believers were circumcising their sons; for in Christ Jesus neither uncircumcision nor circumcision avails anything: but faith which worketh by love. For not only the history, but the very words also indicate that he yielded. For above he says that Titus, being a Greek, was not compelled to be circumcised: and he adds, saying: But because of false brethren unawares brought in. What does this convey, unless that he yielded for an hour because of the false brethren unawares brought in? If not, how would the words or the sense follow? He indeed denies that Titus was compelled to be circumcised: but because of false brethren unawares brought in, what does this convey, unless that he yielded?

But if

because of the false brethren unawares brought in he did not yield, then it was not by his will that he did not yield; for he indicated that he would have yielded, if this is so: but because of the false brethren unawares brought in he did not yield. If then he ought not to have yielded, why are they called false brethren, by whose service he did not do what ought not to have been done? If then this is so, they rendered a service to the Apostle; because on their account he did not do what he was obliged to yield to do. Why then are they called spies, if they did not want him to do what he was about to do: but because of them he did not do it? But if he was not about to do it, without doubt he did it because of them: for it cannot be otherwise. For the words indicate that he yielded, and the history proclaims the deed.

For how could he deny that he yielded for an hour, when it is proved that he circumcised Timothy because of the Jews, which is to have yielded for an hour, and that, purified according to the Law, he went up into the temple? For he who was never found to have yielded could indeed say that he had not yielded even for an hour. For either, being about to yield, he did not yield because of the false brethren: or, not being about to yield, he yielded because of the false brethren. Take then one of the two. But false brethren are those who, believing, were still judaizing.

But of these who seemed to be somewhat, whatsoever they were, it maketh no matter to me; God accepteth no man's person.

This signifies that the apostles were formerly simple men, and unlearned, of no dignity in the Law, but that this did not hinder them. For who would accuse him whom God excuses? Because it is not asked what someone was, but what he is. For things past neither condemn nor vindicate. But nevertheless he wishes it to be understood that he too was learned in the Law, and distinguished in life: and thereby also a foremost minister in the dispensation of the Gospel. For to me who seemed to be somewhat imparted nothing to me. He says he received nothing from the apostles, but from God; because he who bestowed the sense of Christian discipline upon the unlearned, he himself, he says, even though I was learned in the Law, deigned to impart to me the sense of this kind of reasoning.

How then could it be that this man should learn from them, whom, finding already learned, the grace of Christ made more learned still?

But on the contrary, when they had seen that the Gospel of the foreskin was entrusted to me, as that of circumcision to Peter; for he who wrought in Peter unto the apostleship of the circumcision, wrought also in me toward the Gentiles. He names Peter alone, and compares himself to him; because he himself had received the primacy for founding the Church: and that Paul also had been chosen in like manner, so that he might have primacy in founding the Churches of the Gentiles: yet in such a way that Peter also should preach to the Gentiles, if occasion arose, and Paul to the Jews. For each is found to have done both: nevertheless full authority is recognized as given to Peter in the preaching of Judaism, and the perfected authority of Paul is found in the preaching to the Gentiles.

Whence he also calls himself the teacher of the Gentiles in faith and truth; for each was allotted a stewardship according to his own strength.

For it was more difficult to draw and persuade to their own faith those who were far from God, than those who were near.

knowing the grace of God which was given to me, Peter and James and John, who seemed to be pillars, gave to me and to Barnabas the right hands of fellowship; that we should go to the Gentiles, and they to the circumcision; only that we should be mindful of the poor, which very thing I also was careful to do.

He says that the gift he received from God was approved by the apostles who were more eminent among the rest, whom he also calls pillars for the sake of their firmness, and who had always been with the Lord in his secret retreats, worthy to behold his glory on the mountain: by these, then, he says, was approved the gift that he had received from God; that he might be worthy to hold primacy in the preaching to the Gentiles, just as Peter held it in the preaching to the circumcision.

And just as he gives Peter companions, excellent men among the apostles, so he also joins Barnabas to himself, who was joined to him by divine judgment; yet he claims for himself alone the grace of primacy granted by God, just as it was granted to Peter alone among the apostles: so that the apostles of the circumcision extended their right hands to the apostles of the Gentiles to demonstrate the concord of their fellowship; that both, knowing that they had obtained from the Lord the spirit of perfection in the stewardship of the Gospel, might show that they yielded to one another in nothing. Yet this alone they agreed upon among themselves: that concerning what they had not been instructed by precept or gift of the Lord—since this was easy to know from the Law—they should command those to whom they preached to be mindful of the poor; that they might cultivate the mercy by which they had been redeemed by God.

Therefore he makes known these things which took place between himself and the apostles, so that the Galatians might know that what they had received from him is true and approved.

But when Peter had come to Antioch, I resisted him to his face; because he had been reproved.

After the concord of fellowship, and the honor of primacy, which they had bestowed on each other through the grace of God; now, through the intervening occasion of negligence or error, the apostles appear to disagree among themselves—not in their own cause, but out of concern for the Church. "I resisted him to his face," he says. What is this, but that I contradicted him in his presence? And for what reason does he add, saying: "Because he had been reproved"? Reproved, certainly, from the standard of the evangelical truth, to which this deed was contrary.

For who among them would dare to resist Peter, the first apostle, to whom the Lord gave the keys of the kingdom of heaven, unless another such as he, who, trusting in the confidence of his own election, knowing himself not inferior, constantly disapproved what the other had done without counsel.

For before certain men came from James, he ate with the Gentiles: but when they had come, he withdrew and separated himself, fearing those who were of the circumcision. And the rest of the Jews also joined in his dissimulation, so that even Barnabas was carried away with their dissimulation. All these Jews, who consented to the dissimulation of Peter and Barnabas, were of good faith: but on account of the scandal of those who came from James (for they were zealots of the Law, who honored both the Law and Christ with equal reverence, which is contrary to the discipline of the faith), in their presence they did not mingle with the Gentiles.

For they feared the onslaught of the boldness of those who were zealous for the Law. If this alone had been the case, it would not have been reprehensible: but wherein the error lay, he shows in what follows. For he himself indeed yielded to the animosity and boldness of the Jews, fearing lest through this easy concession a scandal might creep in that would be difficult to settle; since he also purified himself according to the Law under compulsion, and circumcised Timothy against his will.

But when I saw that they walked not uprightly according to the truth of the Gospel, I said to Peter before them all.

He attacks Peter alone for this reason, that in him, who is first, the rest might learn.

"If you, being a Jew, live after the manner of the Gentiles, how do you compel the Gentiles to judaize?" Now he opens the cause of the reproof; for there would have been no error at all if, in the presence of the Jews, he had merely dissembled with the Gentiles out of fear of scandal: but here is the whole ground of the reproof; that when those who came from James arrived, he not only separated himself from those with whom he had lived in the Gentile manner, but also compelled them to judaize, out of fear of those men, so that the Gentiles would not know which of these was true. For they knew that he himself had not lived with them as a Jew: but afterward, hearing from him that the manner of the Jews was to be followed, they were left doubting what was true.

For if it was true that they should judaize, they held him to be a transgressor, because he had lived in Gentile fashion; but if the other course was better and true, that they should live simply, then the ruin of the Gentiles came about through his cowardice, since, the good being taken from them, a laborious and ineffectual thing was handed on to them instead. But the apostle Paul, when he yielded for a moment, did not also urge this course; rather, he cried out that he was doing a superfluous and empty thing, because of the fury of the Jews. To this thing indeed he would not have yielded, had there not been a cause present, by which the boldness of very many Jews might exalt itself. Now Timothy was the son of a Jewish woman, but of a Greek father; whence it came about that, as an infant, he had not been circumcised according to the Law.

They therefore lay in wait, watching whether he would take with him one who, born a Jew, was uncircumcised—which they thought unlawful for a man of Jewish stock—seeking an occasion by which they might hold him to be a subverter of the Law; for this reason he yielded for a moment to their fury.

We by nature Jews, and not sinners of the Gentiles.

Knowing, however, that man is not justified by the works of the Law, but through the faith of Jesus Christ; we also believe in Christ Jesus, that we may be justified by the faith of Christ, and not by the works of the Law. He shows by clear reasoning that they were being circumvented into keeping the Law, in which no one is justified before God; since these very men, who are Jews by nature, wishing to be justified, leave the Law behind and flee to the faith of Christ. Because by the works of the Law no flesh is justified.

He says that no man is justified by the works of the Law; for whoever are just, are justified by faith also, as were Abraham and Isaac and Jacob and the other saints.

But if, seeking to be justified in Christ, we ourselves also are found sinners; is Christ then the minister of sin?

God forbid. How can Christ, who forgives sins, be the minister of sin? Therefore he says, "God forbid." But if, wishing to be justified by the faith of Christ, we serve the Law, we profess ourselves to be under sin; because faith withdraws a man from the Law, that he may be just. Therefore if we give ourselves to the Law, we are found sinners; because those who are under the Law are under the curse.

For if I build again the things which I destroyed, I make myself a transgressor. It is settled that one who comes to Christ leaves the Law behind; for from a slave he becomes free.

But if he returns again to the Law, he stands as his own accuser

because he condemns his own deed.

For I through the Law am dead to the Law, that I might live to God. He says this, because through the law of faith he has died to the law of Moses; for one dies to the law who is set free from it: and one lives to God, whose servant he becomes, having been bought by Christ. I am crucified with Christ to the cross. Here he who, as an emulator of his footsteps, is captured by no desire of the world, is crucified together with Christ; so that, living to God, he may seem dead to the world. For he who does not do the things of the world, or of error, is dead to the world.

I live, now not I, but Christ lives in me.

There is no ambiguity that in him who is freed from death through faith, Christ lives; for while he grants forgiveness of sins to one deserving of death, he himself lives in him; for by his aid that one has been snatched from death. But that I now live in the flesh, I live in the faith of the Son of God, who loved me, and delivered himself for me. I am not ungrateful for the grace of God. Since a future life is promised to Christians, therefore he who now lives in this life, fortified by the help of God, lives in the faith of the promised life. For there he beholds his image, as one holding a pledge of the future life, which through the will of God has been obtained for us by the love of Christ.

This one, therefore, is not ungrateful to Christ, who perseveres in his faith, knowing that he has no benefit except from him; and that it would tend to Christ's dishonor if he were to compare to him another whose help he could not have had.

For if righteousness is through the Law, then Christ died in vain. Nothing is so plain; for if man could have been justified through the Law, Christ need not have died. But because the Law could not give remission of sins, nor, triumphing over death, despoil the captives whom it held on account of sin; therefore Christ died, that he might accomplish what the Law could not: and for this reason he did not die in vain; for his death is the justification of sinners.

O foolish Galatians!

Who has bewitched you? These are the words of one marveling in anger; because they had been so corrupted that they did not even recognize themselves as deceived. He uses a proem; for everyone who is bewitched passes from good to evil, just as these had passed from liberty and security to servitude and anxiety. Before whose eyes Jesus Christ was set forth, and crucified among you. It is plain that Christ appears set forth (that is, despoiled or condemned) to the eyes of the foolish; but to the eyes and senses of the wise, he not only is not condemned, but he himself seems to have condemned death by his own cross; for the passion of the Lord is our life, and the destruction of death.

But because these had begun unworthily to think, having gone over to the Law, he therefore complains that Christ appears condemned in their minds; and so he adds: "Crucified among you."

That is, he has been crucified in your understanding, as it were a mere man; for in whom there is not full hope, there he is a man. Therefore these did not think there was full salvation in Christ, because they equated him with the Law. But in those who understand Christ rightly, Christ lives in them; in Photinus he is crucified. For he truly dies in whom Christ is said to be crucified; because this is cast at him by way of accusation.

This only I wish to learn from you: Did you receive the Spirit from the works of the Law, or from the hearing of faith? Are you so without understanding? He speaks still with vehemence; for he grieves greatly over their error, because he saw the edifice he had built for them through the Gospel to be destroyed.

He was not so moved concerning the Corinthians, because although he calls them carnal, they had not yet been so taken captive in mind as to allow themselves to be circumcised. Therefore these also are said to be foolish and without understanding, because they were not able even to take counsel for the pain of their own flesh. For one is generally led to a thing only up to the point where it either delights or causes no pain. These, then, are the words of one questioning, and the question is partly a confirmation, when he says: This only I wish to learn from you: Did you receive the Spirit from the works of the Law, or from the hearing of faith?

He asks them about that in which they even gloried, and which they could not deny, that they had received the Holy Spirit through faith, not through the Law; so that, coming to their senses, they might acknowledge that the gift of God, in which they gloried, they had not received from the work of the Law, but by believing in Christ; so that even thus, grateful to Christ, they might abandon the Law which they had learned to be of no profit to them.

He sets forth this, which at that time could not be denied, that the Spirit of God dwelt in believers; for to commend the rudiments of faith, this gift of God was manifested to men; as happened in the very beginnings among the apostles and the other disciples, and also among those twelve whom (because in an adulterous baptism under the name of the baptism of John they had not been washed, but rather defiled) the apostle Paul commanded to be baptized in the name of the Trinity, upon whom, when hands were laid, the Holy Spirit fell, and he ministered the utterances of various tongues along with their interpretation; so that no one might dare to deny that the Holy Spirit was in them. Wherefore he calls the Galatians without understanding, who, knowing and conscious of this matter, degrading themselves, subjected themselves to the care of the flesh.

Having begun in the Spirit, are you now made perfect by the flesh?

He says this, because whereas the ascent of faith is from lower things to the highest, these on the contrary have fallen from the highest to the lowest. For having been made spiritual through faith, they turned back to the Law and lost the grace of the Spirit which they had obtained; for "consummation" here signifies loss, that is, of faith.

Have you suffered so much in vain, if it be indeed in vain?

He indicates that they had suffered many things for the faith at the hands of unbelievers; for at that time those who believed were a reproach to others, whether to household or to strangers: for they were pointed at with the finger as if guilty of treason. Whence likewise the Galatians suffered many things, having experienced more furious treatment, the merit of which they had lost by putting themselves under the Law. But because he adds, "if it be indeed in vain," he shows that he hopes they can be restored.

He then who supplies the Spirit to you, and works miracles in you, does he do it by the works of the Law, or by the hearing of faith? The sense is the same, to which are added the marks of miraculous power, which bear witness to faith, that it is a trustworthy and reasonable hope. But no power of miracles accompanies the Law to draw one to hope in it; because what is seen is not hoped for, but is temporal, as is the law of works, which we have shown above.

As it is written: Abraham believed God, and it was reckoned to him for righteousness.

By the example of Abraham, who is the father of faith, he shows that righteousness is not imputed from the works of the Law, but through faith; for believing, he was justified: and by this it is shown that they foolishly and without foresight subjected themselves to the Law, which was not given for justification.

Know ye therefore that they who are of faith, these are the sons of Abraham?

It is true that believers are sons of Abraham; because if Abraham was first justified by faith, as many as after him believe are his sons, whether from the Jews or from the Gentiles.

the Scripture, foreseeing that God justifies the Gentiles by faith, foretold to Abraham: In you shall all nations be blessed.

He says this, because Abraham is the model of all believers, so that those who believe are blessed in him; for following his faith, they become partakers of the same blessing.

So then they who are of faith are blessed together with faithful Abraham; for as many as are of the works of the Law are under a curse.

It is manifest that the faithful are blessed together with the faithful one, just as the unfaithful are punished together with the unfaithful. For those who act under the Law are under a curse: because they are transgressors of the Law. For it is written: Cursed is everyone who does not remain in all things which are written in the book of the Law, so as to do them. This is written in Deuteronomy, because if anyone should transgress anything of the Law, he would be held accursed. And the commandments are so numerous that it is impossible for them to be kept.

Whence the apostle Peter also, in the Acts of the Apostles, says: Why do you put a yoke upon the brethren, which neither our fathers nor we were able to bear? For these things were given to a negligent and proud people, so that through their whole manner of life they might have the Law.

But that no man is justified before God by the Law is manifest; because the just man lives by faith.

And by this he teaches that one must withdraw from the Law, lest the righteousness sought through faith be lost. But the Law is not of faith; but the man who does these things shall live in them. The Law is not of faith, because it commands nothing to be believed. For all its precepts are manifest, so that whoever keeps the Law may live: if he fails, he must necessarily be punished; because he committed what he knew ought to be avoided.

It may be objected on the other side, and it may be said: If no man is justified by the Law, how is it that he is cursed who transgresses anything of the Law? It is true that no one is justified by the Law before God: but he is justified before the world, so that he may be secure in the present life. But if he wishes to be justified before God, so that it may avail him to merit on the day of judgment, let him follow the faith of God; otherwise, secure here, he will be guilty hereafter. The Law, therefore, profits—that is, the Law which is written on the tables; for the rest, as he has said, was given to be a burden.

Christ redeemed us from the curse of the Law, having been made a curse for us.

Since no one was able to fulfill the Law, all were guilty under the curse of the Law, so that it might take vengeance upon them: but Christ, born man, offered by the Father for us, redeemed us from the devil. For offering him, willing, to death for those who were liable to the curse of the Law, he made him accursed in this manner, just as in the Law the victim offered for sins was called "sin": therefore, having been offered for the accursed, he was made a curse; for he was also made a curse for the Jews, since he was slain as if a sinner. Therefore he did not say, "made accursed for us," but "made a curse"; for he who was offered to death for his own sin became accursed, for he died in his own case. And if you look more closely, you will see that Christ was made the curse of those by whom he was slain; for the cross of the Savior is the sin and curse of the Jews.

Because it is written: Cursed is everyone who hangs on a tree. This Moses said in Deuteronomy concerning those guilty of death; that it should suffice for those hanged on a tree to remain there until evening, and then be taken down for burial. Because, cursed is everyone, he says, who hangs on a tree; so that it might suffice for one guilty of death that he should die hanged on a tree; lest, if he were hanged longer, his death should bring greater reproach than was fitting: and it would become a stain upon his family, if his death were made public any longer. And by this the Savior, hanged innocent on the tree, is not accursed, but is the curse of those by whom he was hanged. Yet as far as concerns the Jews, offering him to Pilate to be killed as though a sinner, they made him accursed, so that he might be put to death as guilty, though he was innocent, because one worthy of death is accursed according to the Law.

For seeing many gathered to his teaching, they were jealous, saying: Behold, the whole world has gone after him; and by this he is said to have been slain for us, and in a double sense for us; for when they thought he ought to be killed, so that he might not teach, they accomplished nothing; because both his teaching grew, and he emptied out death in his passion. For descending to the lower regions, he freed the human race; for which cause he also allowed himself to be killed, knowing it to be for us, and against the devil.

That in the Gentiles the blessing of Abraham might come through Christ Jesus: and that we might receive the promise of the Spirit through faith.

He says this, because, the Jews having been reproached and cursed, while they flattered themselves about the righteousness of the Law, the Savior having been slain as if a violator of the Sabbath, the blessing of the promise passed over to the Gentiles through the faith of Christ Jesus.

Whence the Lord says to the Jews: The kingdom of God shall be taken from you, and given to a nation bringing forth the fruits thereof.

Brethren, I speak after the manner of men.

He says this, because he wishes to commend the reasoning of the divine promise by the example of a human case. A man's testament, though only that of a man, yet once confirmed, no one makes void, or adds thereto. It is true that a testament, made according to law by one now dead, cannot be annulled.

Now to Abraham were the promises made, and to his seed.

He does not say, "and to seeds," as of many; but as of one: "And to your seed," which is Christ. This is what is written in Genesis to Abraham: And in your seed shall all nations be blessed. This indeed was fulfilled in Christ, in whose name all nations are blessed through faith. Therefore the promise was confirmed not in many, but in one, who is Christ.

By this argument the Apostle designates as, so to speak, guilty of falsifying the testament, those who, believing in Christ, still hope for something also from the Law; as if salvation were promised not only in Christ, but also in the Law. Therefore he proves that the promise of blessing was made in Christ alone.

But this I say, The testament confirmed by God in Christ, the Law, which was made four hundred and thirty years after, does not annul, so as to make the promise void.

He teaches that the promise of blessing was confirmed in Christ alone, so as to show that the Law was given four hundred and thirty years afterward; for the promise having been established, the Law was given afterward, which certainly did not annul the promise, but signified what was to come, and when it would come. For if the inheritance be of the Law, it is no more of promise: but God gave it to Abraham by promise.

The Jews defend two causes contrary to each other; for by no means, by no reasoning, can the Jews be persuaded that the promise to Abraham was annulled by the Law—and rightly so: but on the other hand, with improvident presumption, they defend another position, thinking that justification cannot come about without the work of the Law; while they know that Abraham, who is the pattern of this matter, was justified without the works of the Law, by faith alone. But blinded by a certain rivalry, they do not understand, nor do they consider, that if justification is by the Law, the promise is excluded; and if the promise be excluded, without doubt the faith of Abraham will be made void: which the Jews do not even allow themselves to hear, knowing that the promise to Abraham is of faith. This promise justifies through faith, not through the Law; just as Abraham also was justified by faith.

These, then, are the heirs of the promise of Abraham, who succeed him, taking up the faith in which Abraham was blessed and justified.

The testimony of the promise to Abraham, then, is called a testament; so that after his death there might be heirs in the promise, having been made his sons through faith. This cause ran on even to Christ, promised to Abraham, so that after the death of Christ, believers might be heirs of the faith of Abraham through the testament of the blood of Christ. The gift, then, which was promised to Abraham, has been paid out to his sons in Christ; although Abraham himself also obtained this gift there, where he was found.

Why then was the Law of works set up, until the seed should come to whom the promise was made?

The Law of works, that is, of Moses, was set up in the middle, between the promise once given and the seed to whom the promise was made, that is, between Abraham and the Saviour. It was therefore given long after the promise had been made, so that by this very distinction the Law might appear to be one thing, and the promise another; that it might instruct the people of God, set apart from the nations, in the fear of God, so that they might become worthy to receive the promise, which is Christ. It is called the Law of works, however, because it teaches what things, at God's command, are to be done bodily concerning sacrifices, firstborn, tithes, and other such things. Ordained by angels in the hand of a Mediator.

He calls angels the messengers of God, that is, Moses, and Joshua the son of Nun, and the rest of the prophets down to John the Baptist, of whom God says: Behold I send my angel before thy face. Through these, then, the Law, being set in order, was ordained by God in the hand, that is, in the power, of the Saviour; for he himself is the mediator, or reconciler, of God and men, that he may save whom he wills from among those who kept the Law through the aforementioned means—and if they are sons, they are of necessity also heirs of his promise; that they may obtain by faith what was promised to Abraham, that we may be partakers of his justification in the kingdom of heaven.

But I say, that so long as the heir is a child, he differs nothing from a servant, though he be lord of all; but is under tutors and governors until the time appointed by the father. This is true, because fathers have established a law, and have determined until what age a grown-up person ought to remain subject; so that as long as one is a child, he cannot use his own liberty, nor rule as an heir, but is nearly in the condition of a servant under tutors or governors. By this example he proves that those who were under the Law were as children with respect to merit, and did not have liberty; because in the condition of the Law they were held subject on account of sin.

So we also, when we were children, were subject under the elements of this world.

By "elements" he signifies the new moons and the sabbath; for the new moons are the days of the moon which the Jews observe, and the sabbath is the day of rest. Before the promise came, therefore, that is, before the gift of the grace of God, purifying, justified believers, we, as though imperfect and children, were subject through the Law of God to our fellow-servants, as it were to tutors; for our liberty was held bound on account of sin. Yet the Jews hoped for nothing from the elements, as the pagans did; but they worshipped God the creator in his creation.

But when the fullness of time came, God sent his Son, made of a woman, made under the Law; that he might redeem them who were under the Law, that we might receive the adoption of sons. The fullness of time is the completed time which had been fixed beforehand by God the Father, for when he should send his Son, that, being made of a Virgin, he might be born as it were a man, subjecting himself to the Law until the time of baptism; that he might give the pattern of how sinners, washed and rescued from the yoke of the Law by the condescension of God, might be adopted by him as sons, as he had promised to those redeemed by the blood of his Son.

But it was necessary that the Saviour be made under the Law, as it were a son of Abraham according to the flesh; that, being circumcised, he might appear to be the one promised to Abraham, who was to come to justify the nations through faith, bearing the sign of him to whom he had been promised. Therefore it was no longer necessary for anyone to be circumcised; for the sign ran its course only until he should come who had been promised, to restore the faith in which Abraham was justified while uncircumcised, so that circumcision should not be necessary for believers. Abraham, however, was circumcised for this reason, because he believed he would have a son in whom all nations would be blessed. Therefore the sign ran its course only until he who had been promised should come. But if they believed what Abraham believed, circumcision would not have stood; lest perhaps it be objected that, if Abraham believed and was circumcised, why then are believers not circumcised?

because you are sons of God, God has sent the Spirit of his Son into our hearts, crying, Abba, Father. He began with those to whom he also writes, saying: And because you are sons of God; and he adds the Jews, when he says: God has sent the Spirit of his Son into our hearts. Now when he had said that the nations, believing in Christ, who before had been enemies, were sons of God, there was no doubt that believing Jews were called sons of God, since it is agreed they had long before been called by this name. For they had received the name of God as it were in image, that it might afterward be confirmed through Christ; because without the Spirit it was not complete. This is what he also says to the Romans: The Spirit himself bears witness to our spirit that we are sons of God.

For that we might be proved to have been adopted by God into sons, he gave us his Spirit, which shows the sign of the Father in us as sons; that because we would not dare to say this in our weakness and unworthiness, he prompts us to dare to say: Abba, which is Father. Indeed, this had long since not been granted to the Jews to say.

Therefore now he is not a servant, but a son. He is not a servant, because he has been taken out from under the power of the Law, made a partaker of the blessing of the proper Son of God. But if a son, then also an heir through God. There is no doubt that one adopts a son to oneself so that one may leave him as heir. But an inheritance arises from someone's death: how is it, then, that mortals are called his heirs, who lives forever? But Scripture speaks in our manner, so that we may understand; for in order to show that the father will give to his sons of his own goods, it calls these things which he is to give an "inheritance."

But then indeed, not knowing God, you served those who by nature are not gods.

Since formerly they sinned through ignorance, serving idols, he signifies that this was readily unknown to them, as Abimelech says to God in Genesis: Lord, he says, wilt thou slay a nation that is ignorant?

But now, having known God, or rather being known by God, how do you turn again to the weak and beggarly elements, to which you wish to be enslaved again?

He notes the gravity of their offense; because after the knowledge of God, they began to follow the things of the pagans. And he adds further: For it was not these who knew God, but rather they were known by God. For since these did not seek God, he called them to his grace; and they, ungrateful, began to turn to those things which they had worshipped when they did not know God: so as to venerate weak and beggarly elements, and not with the whole mind Christ, in whom all divinity dwells. He calls the elements weak and beggarly because they are imperfect; for in governing the world they need one another in turn; but in Christ salvation is perfect.

You observe days, and months, and seasons, and years.

He now makes clear what he meant by "elements." The sun makes the day, the course of the moon makes the months; the seasons are spring, summer, autumn, winter: these four, their proper number completed, make a year. Those observe days who say, for instance: One must not set out tomorrow; for after tomorrow nothing should be begun; and thus they are the more apt to be deceived. Those cultivate months who scrutinize the courses of the moon, saying, for instance: On the seventh moon tools ought not to be made; again on the ninth moon a bought servant, for instance, ought not to be led home; and by such things adverse outcomes are more likely to occur. They observe seasons thus, when they say: Today is the beginning of spring, it is a festival, the day after tomorrow are the Vulcanalia. And again they say such things as: Tomorrow is unlucky, one may not leave the house.

They observe years thus, when they say: On the Kalends of January is the new year, as though years were not completed every day; but that they may recall the memory of that two-faced Janus, they use this superstition, which ought to be far removed from the servants of God. For if God is loved with the whole heart, with him propitious, there ought to be no dread nor suspicion of these things; for whatever is done simply in devotion to God can turn out favorably.

I am afraid of you, lest I have labored in vain among you.

The Galatians had been subverted by a double kind of error; so that after the grace of God they turned not only to the Law, but to their former errors. For, being led astray or overturned, they had readily declined into the Law toward the observance of days and months; for the observance of the sabbath and of the new moons drew them into these things. Therefore he says: I fear lest I have labored among you without cause; for he saw them advancing for the worse, to such a degree that they might even entirely fall away from Christ.

Be as I am; for I also am as you are.

He says this that they might take pains to correct these things; because it is not impossible for them to be as he is, since he too was this, that is, a man, as they were: and though he had been in error persecuting the Church, having been corrected he converted himself. Brethren, I beseech you, you have not injured me at all. Now he deals more gently with them, and begins to recall their good qualities; that after severe reproofs, hearing their good works recalled, they might be refreshed, and might reform themselves by their own effort; lest, pressed too long by harsher rebukes, they should become exasperated.

Yet he says they have not injured him at all; for it was to their own harm that their fault worked: for the Apostle had fulfilled the office of the stewardship entrusted to him; so that with all diligence he preached to them, as the Lord says to the prophet Ezekiel: Thou, he says, preach: if they hear thee, thou shalt gain them; but if not, thou shalt save thine own soul.

You know that through infirmity of the flesh I preached the gospel to you at the first; and my trial, which was in my flesh, you despised not, nor rejected.

He calls to their memory the time when he first preached to them the Gospel of God. For at that very time the Apostle was being harassed by injuries, and weakened by beatings; for one seems weak who is humbled, and does not resist, for the sake of the Gospel of God. And in this he praises their constancy, because they were not drawn away from the faith: for the injuries suffered by the Apostle were a trial for the Galatians, in which they were found steadfast, not doubting concerning the faith. For they might, having suffered scandal, have said: What virtue or hope is there in this faith, when its minister is thus humbled?

But because they had already imbued their minds with hopes of the future, they did not fear the present outcomes for the sake of Christ's name, being certain that our faith holds its dignity not on earth but in heaven, and that for these tribulations great rewards are repaid. He instills shame in them; because after these praiseworthy things they had been circumvented, so as to appear blameworthy. But you received me as an angel of God, even as Christ Jesus. This he praises the more in them, because he was not made contemptible in their eyes by his afflictions, but rather was commended, knowing that he suffered destruction for those who believe. As they received the Apostle as an angel of God, then, believing that what he preached was the gift of God: so they deferred to him, as to the very author, the Lord Jesus Christ himself.

Where then is your blessedness?

He says they had been counted blessed among the other churches, on account of the fact that the apostles were not broken by injuries, but grew in the faith. For I bear you witness, that, if it had been possible, you would have plucked out your own eyes, and would have given them to me. He shows their devotion in matters of religion to have been so full, that not only was he well received by them, but also they were found strong in faith: and, what redounds still more to their praise, they offered almost all their own possessions to be spent for him. Hence he grieves the more, because so great a charity had been overturned by false doctrine.

Am I then become your enemy, because I tell you the truth?

He says this, because it cannot be that I, he says, am your enemy, from whom I have experienced such great kindness. But because no one who is in error wishes to be reproved, therefore I seem to you an enemy, justly rebuking you.

They zealously affect you, not well: but they wish to exclude you, that you may be zealous for them.

He signifies that they had been subverted by the envy of the Jews; for seeing them thus prospering in the Gospel, and having so great a love for the Apostle, they did what they could to deceive them. For they were, because of the Law, enemies to the apostles, so that, while the name of the Saviour remained, they might make them Jews, rejoicing in their overthrow; for they could not bear that the grace promised to themselves should be heard to have been given to the uncircumcised nations. Therefore they wished them to become imitators of themselves, so that they might be circumcised after their manner.

But be zealous for the better gifts always in a good thing, and not only when I am present with you.

The better gifts are the spiritual ones, which, when imitated, will have their effect with God. These are the spiritual goods which he wishes them always to imitate, not for a time, as before, or only while he is present, but afterward turning to other things; rather he wishes them henceforth to persevere in the good.

My little children, of whom I travail in birth again, until Christ be formed in you.

First he had begotten them through faith in baptism, but because they were found, as it were, born by miscarriage, deformed and weak, now with the sorrow of counsel he reforms them into Christ. For having conceived faith, yet paying no heed to the meaning of faith, they are said not to have Christ formed in their souls; for if they had understood the grace of God in Christ, they would not have been led back into Judaism after their faith.

But I would wish to be present with you now, and to change my voice, for I am confounded in you.

He wishes to be present to reprove them, so as to change his tone from praise to censure of them, that they might be confounded on a double account: both for their error, and for the shame of the Apostle, which he suffered before those to whom he had preferred them.

Tell me, you who wish to be under the Law, have you not read the Law?

For it is written that Abraham had two sons: one by a bondmaid, and one by a free woman. This is found in Genesis, that when Sarah could not bear children, for she was barren, Hagar offered her handmaid to her husband Abraham as a concubine, so that whatever she bore she might adopt as her own. Thus it happened that Ishmael was born of Hagar. But afterward, by the will of God, a son was promised to Abraham by Sarah his wife, who was barren: she bore Isaac to Abraham. Then Abraham began to have two sons, one by the bondmaid, and one by the free woman.

But he who was of the bondmaid was born according to the flesh; but he of the free woman was by promise: which things are spoken by allegory.

Ishmael, who was born of the bondmaid Hagar, was born according to the flesh, because he was born according to custom; but Isaac, because he was born by promise, not according to custom, but according to the providence and power of God, since Sarah was both aged and barren. For Isaac was born as a type of Christ; therefore he asserts that these things are spoken by allegory, so that the persons of Ishmael and Isaac signify one thing by means of another. For Ishmael signifies the birth of the Jews, or of those who are slaves of sin; but Isaac signifies that of Christians, because they are born in freedom—for he becomes free who receives the remission of sins.

For these are the two Testaments. Moses, taking the blood of a calf in a basin, sprinkled the people, saying: This is the blood of the Testament which God has appointed for you. This is what he meant when he said: One indeed from Mount Sinai, bearing children unto bondage, which is Hagar. For the Law was given on Mount Sinai, which Moses, reading it to the people, called this book of the Testament, and then sprinkled the people with blood, as I have said. This Law held sinners guilty, and they began to be slaves of sin, made children of Hagar, as it were of a bondmaid.

For Sinai is a mountain in Arabia, which corresponds to that which is now Jerusalem, and is in bondage with her children. He says that the case of Hagar signifies the earthly Jerusalem, that is, the Synagogue, which bears children unto bondage; for those whom she bears are under sin.

But that Jerusalem which is above is free, which is our mother.

This, which he calls our mother, is the rule of the Lord's mystery, through which we are reborn into freedom, just as she herself is free. Therefore she is also called heavenly, because heaven is her seat; and those whom she bears will be there with her, as the Lord says: Father, those whom you have given me, I wish that where I am, they also may be with me. This is also life; because those who believe and are reborn through her are given immortality. For thus it is said of the Lord, that what was made in him is life. For as the Father has life, so he has given to the Son also to have life, and the life was the light of men. This life and light is the mother of the faithful. This is found stated in Isaiah, as follows:

For it is written: Rejoice, you barren woman who do not bear; break forth and cry aloud, you who do not travail; for many are the children of the desolate one, more than of her who has a husband. He says that this earthly Jerusalem has a husband, because she bears according to the flesh; but that heavenly Jerusalem, whom he calls our mother, he calls barren, because she does not bear according to the flesh, nor suffer pangs, that is, she does not travail. But she bears without suffering, crying out spiritually in joy; because she who was once desolate (and by whom, if not by Adam, who followed a life of desolation unto death) now has more children than she who has a husband, that is, than she who bears carnally. For Christians are far more numerous than Jews, as is said in the Apocalypse: And I saw a great multitude, which no man could number, out of every tribe and nation.

Now we, brethren, are, as Isaac was, children of promise.

This means that they are not children of the flesh, but of God; for Isaac was born as a type of the Son of God: and he wishes them to understand that, having been made children of God, they turned back so as to become children of the flesh; but if they come to their senses again, they are children of God.

But as then he who was born according to the flesh persecuted him who was born according to the spirit, so it is now also.

Not only Ishmael was born according to the flesh, but also Esau; for he too was born as a type of the Jewish people. Of whom it is written in the prophet Malachi: Jacob I loved, but Esau I hated. This one persecuted Jacob, who, born as a figure of the Christian people, was called Israel, that is, a man seeing God. Likewise he signified that the Jews persecute Christians out of envy; whence it was through deliberate effort that they had overturned the Galatians by carnal cunning.

But what does the Scripture say?

Cast out the bondwoman and her son; for the son of the bondwoman shall not be heir with my son Isaac. These are the words of Sarah, who bears the type of the heavenly Jerusalem, bringing forth Isaac by promise; so that, the son of the bondmaid having been cast out—that is, the Jewish people cast off on account of unbelief (for they are slaves of sin, to whom the remission of sins has not been given)—the son of that free heavenly Jerusalem might be heir, who is the new people of the kingdom of heaven.

So then, we are not children of the bondwoman, but of the free woman, by the freedom with which Christ has made us free.

We were, therefore, children of the bondwoman while we were subject to sins; but having received the remission of sins from Christ, we have been set free.

Stand fast therefore, and be not held again under the yoke of bondage.

He admonishes them to stand firm in the grace received, so that, not returning to the old ways, they should not lose the gift of freedom which they had obtained.

Behold, I Paul say to you, that if you be circumcised, Christ will profit you nothing.

Now he does not conceal the force of open truth and of his own authority, saying: Behold, I Paul say to you—that, the teacher of the Gentiles, whose work you are in Christ—I say to you openly: Christ will profit you nothing if you be circumcised; for the Lord himself says: The Law and the prophets were until John; from that time the kingdom of heaven is preached. Before the new preaching began, therefore, it was fitting to be circumcised; but now, since the law of faith has succeeded, those things must be followed which the new truth commands; because the old and the new ought not to be mixed together, on the authority of the Lord who preaches; for he says: No man puts a patch of new cloth on an old garment; for it takes away its strength from the garment, and the tear becomes worse.

And by this it is shown that not only will circumcision added profit the believer nothing, but it will even harm him; for it is a greater evil to become a slave from being free, than to be born a slave.

For I testify again to every man circumcising himself, that he is a debtor to do the whole Law. Some are able to keep the Law to some extent without being circumcised; for many of the Romans in Judea kept the Law though uncircumcised. Hence Paul the apostle says to Agrippa, king of Judea: I know, King Agrippa; you believe the prophets, I know that you believe. And the centurion, whose servant was about to die, who sent to Jesus, asking him to come and heal his servant; concerning whom the Jews, bearing witness, said to Jesus: He is worthy that you should do this for him; for he loves our nation, and has himself built us a synagogue. Yet no one who is circumcised fails to be a debtor to keep the whole Law; for he is a debtor, because the Law was given to the circumcised. He said this because they were showing themselves so foolish that they were fit to bear all the burdens of the Law.

You are emptied of Christ.

Those to whom Christ profits nothing are emptied of Christ; for they were full of his grace, which, upon departing, left them empty. For he speaks to those who, after receiving the gift of God's grace, preferred to be circumcised. You who are justified in the Law have fallen from grace. The justice of the Law consists in the things given being observed. Therefore whoever wishes to be justified by these things after faith loses grace; because the gift of God came for this purpose: that, the burdens of the Law having ceased, he might justify believers before God.

For we through the Spirit, by faith, wait for the hope of righteousness; for in Christ Jesus neither circumcision avails anything, nor uncircumcision, but faith which works through love. It is clear what he means: that the hope of justification is in faith through the Spirit, not through the works of the Law; for in faith God is served spiritually by devotion of mind and purity of heart. Hence the Lord says to the Samaritan woman: God is a spirit; and those who worship him must worship in spirit and truth. And by this neither uncircumcision avails anything, nor circumcision; but faith alone is at work in love toward justification; for faith ought to be strengthened by brotherly love, so that the believer may be perfected. Finally, the Savior, when a scribe asked what the first commandment was, answered: You shall love the Lord your God with your whole heart, and with your whole soul; and your neighbor as yourself.

On these two commandments, he says, hang the whole Law and the prophets Everything else, therefore, is imperfect, since perfection is contained in these two commandments.

You did run well; who hindered you from obeying the truth?

He testifies that their exercise in the works of faith had been good, but that they were held back by the wickedness of evil men, so that they did not complete their course with lasting effect. Hence he exhorts them to come to their senses, no longer trusting any of those who, by persuading them to keep the works of the Law, prevented them from obeying the truth of the Gospel.

This persuasion is not from him who calls you. This is true, because the Jews were doing these things by human counsel, in order to place them under the yoke of the Law—not by the judgment of God, who was calling them through his Apostle unto grace.

A little leaven corrupts the whole lump.

He says this because, although they had admitted some small portion of the Law into faith, they violate faith, so that it may not have fruit, or be acceptable. He added this lest perhaps they should think they retained the grace of faith unharmed, if they observed only a few things of the Law.

I have confidence in you in the Lord, that you will be of no other mind.

He says he trusts this concerning them for this reason: that they had entered upon the way of error not of their own will, but having been led astray. Therefore, once the true way has been shown, he is confident they can easily return. But he who troubles you shall bear the judgment, whoever he is. Just as he who brings back one who has gone astray is to be rewarded, as James the apostle says in his epistle: He who converts a sinner shall save his soul from death, and shall cover a multitude of sins; so also he who forces one walking in the right way to turn aside into a byway incurs condemnation, whoever he may be. He adds this on account of these men, lest they should defend their own merit on the ground that they were children of Abraham according to the flesh. Indeed, exalting themselves, they said to Jesus: We are children of Abraham.

I, brethren, if I yet preach circumcision, why do I still suffer persecution?

What he says is clear; for he was regarded by the Jews as an enemy on this very account, and they did not cease from persecuting him, because he taught that circumcision no longer stood. Finally, with the Jews pressing him, and repeatedly bringing false accusations against him, seeing that the judge was biased, he was compelled to appeal to Caesar. Then is the scandal of the cross made void. The preaching of the cross was a scandal to the Jews, because it made void the sabbath and circumcision. But if he admitted circumcision, it would not be a scandal, and the Jews would be at peace with us. For they said of the Savior: This man is not of God, who does not keep the sabbath.

Would that they were even cut off, who trouble you!

This is like that saying to the Corinthians in the first epistle: Whoever, he says, does not love the Lord Jesus, let him be anathema. Those whom he joins to their sentence are of that very sick flock; so that they may be cut off from the mercy of the Lord, who have stripped the Galatians of the grace of God: and he curses them not only spiritually, but also carnally; so that because they compelled the Galatians to be circumcised, they themselves might be cut off, that bodily pain might be multiplied for them.

For you, brothers, have been called unto liberty. They were called into liberty; because when they were bound by sins, receiving the remission of offenses by the grace of God, they were set free. Only do not give liberty as an occasion to the flesh. He says this, lest an occasion of the flesh take away the liberty received: for it was to this end that they wished them to be circumcised, that they might enter into the condition of the Law. Therefore he warns them not to give occasion by consenting to them. But by the love of the spirit serve one another. He exhorts that charity be held not by the affection of the flesh, but by the love of the spirit, so that they may be subject to one another.

For the whole Law is fulfilled in you in one word: You shall love your neighbor as yourself. This is written in Leviticus, as was said above, because the perfection of salvation works through love; because he who does not love his brother does not love God, says John the apostle.

But if you bite and devour one another, take heed lest you be consumed by one another.

It is manifest that dissension among brothers is the enemy of love; therefore he warns that they be peaceable, advancing in good. For contentions beget strife, whose fruit is the consumption of life.

But I say, walk in the spirit, and you shall not fulfill the concupiscence of the flesh.

After he forbade them from the law of works, in which are carnal precepts; now he commands that they restrain themselves from the vices of the flesh. For he walks in the spirit who flees sins.

For the flesh lusts against the spirit, and the spirit against the flesh; for these are contrary to one another, so that you do not do the things that you would. He sets forth two laws, as he also does in the epistle to the Romans, which are contrary to one another: one of God, the other of sin. This latter is signified in the flesh, because it is delighted by visible things, being covetous of sins; so that, these being contrary to one another, man in the middle does not do what he wishes. For the divine law presses down and puts to flight the law of sin, counseling man to keep the vigor of his own nature, lest he be captured by allurements: that other law, on the contrary, acting in ambush, provokes man with flatteries, that he may despise the precept of the divine law.

When, therefore, man has consented to the law of God, the law of sin contradicts, persuading man not to do what the divine law commands: but conversely the law of God calls man back, lest he do what the law of sin suggests. Man does not see this to be absurd; for he knows it agrees with his own nature, if he does what the law of God commands. Indeed he rejoices when he does these things: but when he does what the law of sin suggests, he sees himself base, and shudders after the deed. Therefore the precepts of the law of the spirit are to be kept, and carnal things fled; for conscience itself accuses, if it consents to it, knowing that the things the law of sin suggests are things of horror.

But if you are led by the Spirit, you are not under the Law.

It is not obscure that he who has the Holy Spirit as guide does not err; for the law rules over those who err, as he says elsewhere: the law is not laid down for the just man.

Now the works of the flesh are manifest, which are adultery, fornication, impurity, obscenity, idolatry, sorceries, enmities, contentions, dissimulations, wraths, quarrels, dissensions, heresies, envies, murders, drunkenness, revelings, and things like these, which I foretell to you, as I have also foretold, that those who do such things shall not obtain the inheritance of the kingdom of God. All these and things like them are the members of the law of sin, which the Apostle calls the works of the flesh; because these errors are from the world, from which also the flesh is. For all sins arise from without, on the part of the flesh, not on the part of the spirit; therefore they are not unreasonably called works of the flesh.

But the fruit of the Spirit is charity, joy, peace, longsuffering, kindness, goodness, gentleness, self-control, chastity, benevolence: against such there is no law.

And they who are Christ's have crucified their flesh with its vices and lusts. He did not say: The work of the spirit is charity, but the fruit of the spirit; for the law of the spirit brings forth these fruits which he mentioned above; so that from them the inheritance of the kingdom of heaven may be sought; for those who are devoted to Christ he calls christs, that is, anointed ones. These crucify the flesh, that is, the world, when they condemn the things from which errors arise. Following this sense also John the apostle says: Do not love this world, nor the things that are in this world. If anyone loves the world, the love of the Father is not in him; because all that is in this world is the lust of the flesh, and the lust of the eyes.

He, therefore, who does not covet the world and what is in the world, crucifies the flesh. Nor indeed are these vices to be ascribed to the human body, that is, idolatry, sorceries, heresies, envies, enmities, wraths and the like: but they are called carnal because they belong to the part of the world, as I mentioned above. Meanwhile he set down no more than ten things, which signify the fruit of the spirit; so that in these he might seem to embrace all things according to the tablets of the Testament of God, in which no more than ten words of commandments were delivered.

If we live by the spirit, let us also walk by the spirit.

Let us not be desirous of vain glory, provoking one another, envying one another. He says this, because if we live well and honorably, we ought also to have good morals; for this is to live by the spirit, to have an uncontaminated life: and thus we walk by the spirit, if we strive for peace; for this begets charity. But it is vain glory to wish to conquer where there is no prize; that one should have zeal for contention and emulation, knowing that these beget discords and quarrels: But the servant of the Lord, he says, must not quarrel. For it makes the fruits of a good life barren, losing the promised hope of a chaste manner of life: for a good and chaste life must be adorned with good conduct, and enriched with benevolence.

Brothers, even if a man be overtaken in any fault, you who are spiritual, instruct such a one in the spirit of meekness, considering yourself, lest you also be tempted; bear one another's burdens.

Now he addresses those who were stronger; lest, puffed up with their good life, they should think one who had perhaps been overtaken by sin should be despised and cast off, and instead should be counseled by them. For they are to be provoked to reform themselves with gentleness; because if they were rebuked more sharply from authority, they would not suffer themselves to be accused: but they would even begin to defend themselves, lest they seem base; and they begin to become worse. For take a man away from contention and boldness, and you will have him subject; for humility is wont to bend even the proud.

And that this might be done with entire gentleness of soul, he added: Lest you also be tempted; so that even for this reason one should not despise the sinner, knowing that he himself could sin. And so you will fulfill the law of Christ; for the law of Christ wills that all be saved: and by this, he who counsels a sinning brother to return to right purpose fulfills the will of Christ.

For if anyone thinks himself to be something, when he is nothing, he deceives himself. But let each one prove his own work; and then he shall have glory in himself alone, and not in another. This is true, and it is hidden from no one, that if we consider our own deeds and mind, we prefer ourselves to no one, and we do not easily judge anyone. For he who is puffed up as if he were something errs; for he does not know that growth comes from humility. For he does not have before his eyes the words and deeds of the Savior, who, though Lord of all, humbled himself; that he might give us a pattern of what we ought to follow, if we wish to grow: and if we exalted ourselves, we would be brought low, which the unskillfulness of a puffed-up heart does; so that it may seem more commendable among men. For despising and scorning sinners, he strives to appear just, like that Pharisee whom the Lord marks out.

Is he not truly unskilled who is desirous of present glory?

Is he not truly in despair of future things, who wishes to obtain the reward of righteousness in the present? Why? Because he is not just in deed, but by deceit feigns righteousness; for he who wishes to be just prefers another to himself, that he may be truly just. For each one knows his own evils better than another's.

For each one shall bear his own burden. In the end he wished this to be made known to the proud, that no one is defiled by another's sin, provided he dissents from it, so that no one should be afraid to join himself to a sinner, or to receive one coming to him, that he may gain him.

Let him who is instructed in the word (that is, he who hears the word of God) share with him who instructs him in all good things.

He says this, that hearers should share with their teachers in all good things. But if they act otherwise than they teach, one must not share with them in these matters, but dissent; so that the law rather than the man be your guide. For he will harm himself, not you; because you observe what he has taught.

Be not deceived, God is not mocked.

It is doubtful to no one that God cannot be deceived, but that each one obtains from him what he deserves.

For whatever a man sows, that also he shall reap. For he who sows in his flesh, shall of the flesh reap corruption. Here he signifies carnal vices, which are commonly committed in the flesh; so that he who has corrupted his flesh may know that he will be liable to corruption. Now he corrupts the body who presumes upon things not permitted. But he who sows in the spirit, shall of the spirit reap life everlasting. A Christian man consists of spirit and flesh; for man, in comparison with the Holy Spirit, is flesh. When, therefore, he gives assent to the spirit, restraining himself from those things which are contrary to it, he sows spiritually; so that he may be able to reap life everlasting. For he receives the testimony of the Spirit, and immortality in place of reward. For just as he who corrupts, dishonoring his body, belongs not to eternity, but to corruption; so also he who keeps himself uncontaminated shall obtain life everlasting.

For this is eternal life, to live without punishment, and to have glory. For if even here, in the present, one who is in anxious care denies that he is alive; how much more where, alien from God, one shall suffer the tormenting fire!

let us not fail in doing good; for in due time we shall reap, if we faint not.

He says this, because he who is strong in sowing will also be strong in reaping, that is, he will receive in the manner in which he acts. Therefore he exhorts us to be prompt to do good, and that we ought not to suffer weariness, being assured that for small things we shall receive great, and for earthly things eternal, at the time which God has promised.

Therefore, while we have time, let us do good to all. The Gentiles have time for doing evil; for men without God, how can they do good? But having become Christians, they have time for doing good to all men; so that after receiving faith, good work may profit toward the promised reward. For time is granted to life for this purpose, that we may now conduct ourselves justly, giving an example to the Gentiles. But especially to those of the household of faith. It is true that we ought to be more ready and inclined to good toward brothers; because we are members of one another. This, therefore, is the thing to be served, which profits; not circumcision, a thing now empty.

See with what letters I have written to you with my own hand.

He gives authority to his epistle; for when he says: I have written with my own hand, he wishes these letters to be obeyed. For where the hand is holograph, it cannot be said to be false; lest perhaps those who had been led astray should make excuse concerning the epistle, as though it were either false, or not the Apostle's, being unwilling to be reproved.

Whoever wish to please in the flesh, they compel you to be circumcised, only that they may not suffer persecution for the cross of Christ.

To please in the flesh signifies to please men. For that they might live in favor with the Jews, or not hostile to them, whom he calls false apostles, they so preached Christ that they also taught that the law should be kept: which the Apostle never feared, but constantly did not keep silent what is true, providing both for himself and for those whom he was teaching. Accordingly he says: I am ready not only to be bound, but even to die at Jerusalem for the name of our Lord Jesus Christ.

For neither do they themselves who are circumcised keep the law: but they wish you to be circumcised, that they may glory in your flesh. This is like that which was also said to the apostle Peter: If thou, being a Jew, livest after the manner of the Gentiles, how dost thou compel the Gentiles to live as Jews? So also these men, since they themselves did not keep the law, living unjustly, were zealous for circumcision; so that they might thereby appear to be vindicators and lovers of the law: whereas it is certain that he defends and keeps the law who carries out its just requirements; and does not pass over the commandment which was given pertaining to life. Such then was the excuse of the Galatians. He says this, that they may understand even thus, that they were being mocked as fools and dullards, in whose pains men were glorying.

But God forbid that I should glory, save in the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ, through whom the world is crucified to me, and I to the world.

As the false apostles, ashamed of these things, sought by hypocrisy to redeem the tribulations suffered for the name of Christ, as though they would profit nothing; so also the Apostle gloried in these things, knowing that great reward was to come for them: just as also his fellow-apostles, as it is written in the Acts of the Apostles: Then, it says, the apostles went out from the council, having been beaten, rejoicing that they were counted worthy to suffer reproach for the name of Christ. Whoever therefore has all his hope in Christ, this man glories in his cross; to this man also the world is crucified, being certain that the love of the cross of Christ is life, but the love of the world brings forth death.

They are therefore dead to each other, both the world to the Apostle, and the Apostle to the world; while the Apostle desires nothing of the world, and while the world has nothing of its own which it recognizes in the Apostle, just as the Lord also says: Behold, he says, the prince of this world comes, and will find nothing in me.

For in Christ Jesus neither circumcision availeth anything, nor uncircumcision; but a new creature. And as many as walk according to this rule, peace be upon them and mercy, and upon the Israel of God. The new creature is our regeneration, this is what gives progress to those who remain steadfast; for upon these is the peace of God. For he who is at peace with God fears the enmity of no one; for he is kept safe by the protection and mercy of God, which was promised, and remains upon the Israel of God, not upon the Israel of man; for the Jews who do not believe are Israelites according to the flesh. He signified therefore two parts, upon which the peace and mercy of God remains, that of the believing Jews, and of the faithful Gentiles.

From henceforth let no man trouble me.

He did not wish troubles to be made for himself henceforth, lest he perhaps be compelled to write again: but he now wants corrections to be made among them; so that, with the errors cut away, he might have a rest after so many vexations. But if they proved themselves more hardened, and inflexible in turning back, let them cease troubling him; that he might spend his labor and effectiveness on those from whom he might hope for reward or gain. For I bear in my body the marks of the Lord Jesus Christ.

He says this in indignation, because he saw that the sufferings he was enduring for the sake of believers were proving ineffective among them; since by the constancy and faith of his teaching he did not fear to suffer wounds and bonds for Christ: but he suffered, out of love for believers, to bear on his body the scars of wounds; so that he might preach to them no less faithfully than the false apostles who had deceived the Galatians. And so he wants no one to be troublesome to him who is not devoted to this matter; for these marks, that is, the scars of wounds, are testimonies of the faith of those believers who suffer, that they are worthy of the future promise.

The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with your spirit, brethren.

He does not speak of the grace of the Law, but says that the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ is with their spirit, whom he calls spiritual brothers; for they had not all been utterly overturned.