Commentary on Galatians

Paul an apostle not from men, nor through man, but through Jesus Christ and God the Father, who raised him from the dead, and all the brothers who are with me, to the churches of Galatia. The order at the beginning of the sentence is this: Paul an apostle, and all the brothers who are with me, to the church of Galatia. And here the apostle commends himself, as one sent not from men nor through man, but through the Lord Christ and God the Father who raised him from the dead; showing who writes, with whom, and to whom: and whereas Paul is accustomed to profess only himself—Paul an apostle—to the Romans, to the Corinthians; in order to burden the Galatians and to mark them as being in grave error, he joined to himself also all the brothers who were with him, so that they too might write to them, causing them shame that they hold a view contrary to all.

Not from men nor through man, so that he might give greater force to his precepts and to the gospel which he proclaims.

For indeed, being about to correct the Galatians, he says that he is an apostle neither from men nor through man, but through Jesus Christ and God the Father. Therefore I am to be believed, and faith is to be given: and the Gospel which I set forth is true; for it comes through Jesus Christ and God the Father. An apostle therefore, he says, not from men nor through men; since not through the apostles, of whom he says that he was with them only a few days, and that they gave him the right hand of fellowship: he therefore learned nothing from them. Nor through man, that is, through any prophet, as it might be ambiguously understood; nor through Christ as man, but through Christ who is in man: for Christ is both God and man. Not from men nor through man.

When he says from men, he seems to signify Matthias, who learned from men: for he was substituted in the place of the betrayer; he therefore learned from men. But when he said nor through man, he means that he was not sent or taught by a man, but through Jesus Christ, that is, God. Therefore in saying not from men, he hints at the apostles; since the apostle Paul, as he has proved, learned nothing from any apostle who had been with Christ. Likewise, lest, since he learned through Christ, he should seem to deny—as some blasphemous heretic—that Christ was man; adding, not through man, he then states what that means by saying, but through Jesus Christ and God the Father. Since he denied through man, and added through Christ, it may be understood as through God Christ. But since he added through God the Father, for this reason some say that Christ is scarcely named God by Paul. Yet in many places we have proved that Christ is also called God by Paul.

Here too it may be understood: for if it is said not through man, and there is added but through Christ, it is to be understood that Christ also is God. Since, however, God does what he does through Christ, as we have shown in many places, it is therefore said through Christ, and God the Father who raised him from the dead. Certainly, lest it should be said, how did you learn through Christ, since you did not follow Christ and Christ is dead? He added that God raised Christ from the dead. Therefore Christ taught me, who was raised from the dead; but raised by the power of God the Father. What this mystery of the Son raised from the dead is, we have often expounded; often, when occasion arises, we shall speak of it. And all the brothers who are with me: Paul has already shown above the order of this sense—Paul an apostle and all the brothers who are with me. What is added? To the church of Galatia.

Keeping the custom by which we add either greeting or something of that kind, Grace to you and peace from God the Father, and our Lord Jesus Christ, who gave himself for our sins that he might deliver us from the present evil age according to the will of God and our Father, to whom be glory for ever and ever. Let us remember what the Apostle is doing in this epistle; since he rebukes the Galatians and desires to correct them, so that they may have faith in Christ, and from him alone await the hope of salvation, the hope of eternity, the remission of sins; and that they should in no way believe that either works of the law or sabbaths or circumcision profit them.

Therefore at the outset he prays for peace and grace for them from God: and then he added from Christ, because in Christ are all our goods: and he proves that all things are in Christ and through Christ, when he says who gave himself for our sins, that he might deliver us from the present evil age. Therefore by his benefit, by his grace—from God the Father indeed, but through his passion—we are delivered from the present evil age; and we are delivered through Christ, but by the power of God, that is, of God to whom be glory throughout all eternity. If therefore God is eternal, his glory too is eternal. And by God's will Christ fulfilled the mystery, gave himself for our sins, that he might deliver us all; the deliverance is from God's will through Christ. But if it is through Christ, nothing further is to be sought, and those things which the Galatians add are vain, that is, Judaism, works of the law, observance of the sabbath, and circumcision.

I marvel that you are so quickly transferred from him who called you in grace to another gospel.

Since the gospel which the apostle Paul proclaims is certain, that is, Christ the Son of God, the power of God unto salvation to all who believe, whether Greeks or Jews; and nothing beyond this; but that all hope of salvation and of God's grace toward us lies in faith in Christ, so that we believe him to be the Son of God, that he suffered for us, that he rose again, and that we too shall rise from that point, with the remission of sins; which is the true gospel that Paul proclaims; if anyone adds anything else, that is, Judaism and circumcision and observance of the sabbath and the rest, he sins in this manner and is alien from the truth. Since therefore the Galatians thought that Judaism was to be joined to the gospel of the Apostle, he says therefore: I marvel that you are so quickly transferred.

For the first fault is to be quickly transferred; for there is no reason when something is quickly transferred: and then there is the matter of what it is transferred to, since it is transferred from something. Let us see therefore from what: from him, he says, who called you in grace. For Christ, who suffered for us all, called us in grace, if we believe in him; for it is no great thing to obtain his grace, if only we follow him, believing that he accomplished these things for us by his mystery; and that freely, and without toil, and without great works. Since this has been bestowed on us by him, to be quickly transferred from him is a great cause for wonder, that they preferred to be transferred to another gospel, associating the discipline of Judaism.

But there is one gospel, and only one: to believe that Christ is the Son of God, that Christ by his passion and his coming in the flesh and his resurrection and passion dissolved all sins, conquered death, and destroyed all corruption: this alone is the gospel. Therefore he adds,

Which is not another: for that alone is it, which we said above: for there is no other, nor is it a gospel—that is, our salvation—to merit salvation by works, or by observance of the sabbath, or by circumcision. Unless there are some who trouble you and wish to pervert the gospel of Christ. He says therefore that the deeds of certain persons proceed not from truth, in that when they wish to trouble you, and as though you were less learned, they wish to teach you. They pervert the gospel of Christ, since there is no gospel except that of Christ.

But that which comes from works or from circumcision is not of Christ: for these things understood carnally are not of Christ; but if they are understood spiritually, so that circumcision is of the heart, and all things which are in the flesh are understood spiritually, these, I say, are the Gospel of Christ. But those who descend to works and to things that are carnal do not have the Gospel of Christ. Therefore those who wish and command you to observe either the sabbath or the new moons or circumcision or the other things that are done by works, these do not have the gospel of Christ: hence they wish to turn you away from the Gospel of Christ. But since you have believed in Christ, and all things are to be hoped for in Christ, they wish to trouble you while they persuade you of something else.

But even if we, or an angel from heaven, should preach to you other than what we have preached to you, let him be anathema.

He has joined together a more sharp and vehement compressed sense, that all err if they have proclaimed anything beyond the gospel of Christ; if we ourselves, whom you have already believed, or still more an angel, even an angel from heaven, should preach to you otherwise, that is, otherwise than the gospel of Christ, which indeed we have preached, let him be anathema; for this is what he said: other than what we have preached to you. Therefore even to me, if I should preach otherwise, and to an angel who is from heaven, if, he says, he should proclaim otherwise than we once proclaimed to you, let him be anathema; that is, as we explained above, let him be rejected: and let him be without reward, or rather with the punishment of his evil deed.

As we said before.

It may seem that even in the earlier passages he had said something of this kind, that those who preach the Gospel otherwise should be anathema: but he said as we said before in order to add and now again I say, so that it may be understood from that very thing which he had just said: as we said before, so now again I admonish. What? That which was said above: if anyone shall have preached a gospel to you other than what you have received, let him be anathema—that is, whether I shall have preached and proclaimed the Gospel otherwise, or an angel, or any other whatsoever, let him be anathema. He adds moreover a stronger reason, because what he does he does not for this purpose, to persuade men, but to fulfil the mystery which has been entrusted to him. For thus he continues:

For do I now persuade men or God?

For I do not, he says, do what I do for the purpose of persuading men, but I persuade before the Lord God, whom I wish to please, so that I may carry out what has been commanded. The Greek has it differently: for do I now persuade men ἀνθρώπους πείθω ἢ τὸν θεόν? That is, I do not preach to men, nor the things that are of men, but to God. For I wish to persuade not men but God Christ. Therefore in this way too I have necessity and fear of speaking the truth, and not of saying one thing and another. Or do I seek to please men? For I do not do those things which are for the convenience of men, so as to please men, but so as to please God in that I render obedience and fulfil his commands. And he adds more forcefully that which he says: if I were yet pleasing men, I should not be the servant of Christ.

For indeed to please men, as is shown by many things, is not to merit the grace of God. If anyone thinks that life is to be lived by works, he pleases men, and does not yet merit grace. But if I were pleasing men. Therefore if I wished, he says, to please men, I should not be the servant of Christ, that is, I should not have been redeemed by Christ. For this is what it means to be a servant of Christ: that, redeemed through his passion, freed from the world and from the lords of the world and of the flesh, I now have Christ as Lord and am his servant.

And so he who wishes to please men has not been redeemed by Christ, and serves the lords of the world when he pleases men: but he becomes a servant of Christ who is redeemed from servitude into freedom—for this is what it means to be a servant of Christ, to be free from worldly servitude: he is a servant of Christ who, redeemed as we have said, knows not that servitude; which is perfect freedom.

For I make known to you the Gospel which was preached by me, that it is not according to man. Either, as he said above, that he is an apostle not from men nor through man, so now he said this, that it is not according to man. For the apostle announces, that is, preaches the Gospel, which is to proclaim the Son of God, Christ the Saviour of all, through whom all things were made: and this I say not according to man, that is, not received from man. Or because that Saviour himself is not a man, as some think; nor because he was sent into a man, is he therefore a man; but God, taking flesh by mystery for the overcoming of the flesh, as has been said and treated in many places, was made man. Not therefore, he says, did I preach the Gospel to you according to man.

I make known therefore, brethren, to you who err and are carried and borne away to man, thinking carnally, observing sabbaths, circumcision, and the rest—my Gospel is not according to man

that is, so that it should deal with man, that is, with the flesh, but according to the power of the soul. For the whole mystery was accomplished for this purpose, that we should not think in the manner in which some think according to man, taking all things carnally: but he himself added what he wishes to be understood by not according to man.

For neither did I receive it from man, nor was I taught it, but by the revelation of Jesus Christ. I did not therefore preach the Gospel according to man, because I did not receive it from man. Therefore if it is one thing to receive from man, it will be another thing to act according to man: and likewise if it is one thing not to have received from man, it will be another thing not to act according to man: whence it may be understood that to act according to man means to perceive carnally; inasmuch as this argument is taken from the fact that I did not receive it from man. For if a man had handed these things on to me, I should have received them according to man, so as to understand all things according to the flesh: but now what I preach is not to be received according to man; that is, not carnally but spiritually: inasmuch as this is the argument, that I did not receive it.

For if I received it from the Spirit, and was taught by the Spirit, I ought to understand spiritually: and this will be not according to man. What then does he add? But it was revealed to me, he says, by Christ Jesus. Moreover, that he said revealed carries more credibility than if he were taught. For men teach, and assert something as it were by arguments; but revelation is the very vision of the things themselves; which is certainly more. But who revealed it? Jesus Christ. For those who now follow Christ ought not to receive it in such a way as to understand it as received from man, since it had been said, Jesus Christ revealed it, and the Galatians had already received both God and the Son of God. The remaining things which they add are from man, either from those who persuaded them, or from Moses himself, who gave the law. He indeed received it from God, but they, understanding little, perceive all things carnally. So great is the evil!

For Moses received this law and believed: but the apostle said that it had been revealed to him, and this he sets forth.

For you have heard of my manner of life at one time in Judaism; that beyond measure I persecuted the Church of God and ravaged it, and advanced in Judaism beyond many of my contemporaries in my nation, being more abundantly zealous for the traditions of my fathers. The sum of this narration about himself is this: to teach that he learned not from men nor through man, but from God and from Jesus Christ: which thing indeed serves this purpose, that the Galatians may not think otherwise, nor suppose that anything is to be added to that Gospel which Paul announced to them; that faith in Christ is to be received, and it is to be believed that he himself gives salvation, and no other: and that salvation is given neither by works nor by circumcision or observance of the sabbath, that this is the Gospel, and that nothing else besides what the Galatians received is to be accepted.

To prove this readily, he adds, as I said, a narration about himself: what he had been, how he was converted; after he was converted from Judaism and began to believe in Christ, what he did: and that he learned all these things not from men; since indeed he did not see Peter except when he was already prepared and instructed, nor any of the apostles. For first, he says, I was a Jew; therefore an adversary: nor did I learn from them, since what is said in the Gospel about Christ is contrary to them. Therefore I was a Jew doing many things against the Church; I learned nothing therefore from the Jews. But after I was converted, and God began through his grace to reveal his Son in me; I began, he says, to preach the Gospel among the Gentiles. Then he shows that he did not spare himself nor come to Jerusalem, lest perhaps he had learned there from the apostles.

But I withdrew, he says, into Arabia; thence I returned to Damascus; then after three years I came to Jerusalem.

Behold, he is already preaching the Gospel and teaching Christ. He did not therefore learn these things from men: for he came to Jerusalem after three years. Then therefore he saw Peter, and was with him for fifteen days. When therefore did he learn from Peter, or could he have learned? Then, he says, I saw none of the other apostles, except James the brother of the Lord. In which he shows this above all, that he learned from no one, since he was with Peter for only a few days: and seeing James the brother of the Lord, he confirmed more strongly that he could not have learned from James; since Paul holds in the Gospel what is contrary to what James holds, as we shall teach afterwards.

Then he says he went to the regions of Syria and Cilicia; yet that he was already known to all the churches and to the Jews

because though he had been a Jew, he was also following the Gospel and preaching it.

After these things he narrates that after fourteen years he came to Jerusalem.

Whence therefore did he learn these things which he preaches? Not from men nor through man, but through revelation. I set forth, he says, to all of them the Gospel which I preach among the Gentiles. Then also to the apostles I rather narrated the Gospel; they did not teach me. Where also he teaches how much he did through dissimulation, so that he might obtain the Gospel: since indeed he accepted a portion of Judaism out of necessity, so that the truth of the Gospel might remain, which we shall teach in its proper place what it means.

Thence he says that he and Peter hold one Gospel; but Peter so as to preach to the Jews, himself so as to preach to the Gentiles; and that this was given to him through revelation; and that these offices were divided by God and our Lord Jesus Christ: for he himself worked in both: which Peter and John confirmed, that their judgment was the same as that of the apostle Paul and of Barnabas; and they agreed that these should preach the Gospel to the Gentiles, those to the Jews. But the greatest thing he adds and recalls, both for his confidence and his knowledge and his revelation and his Gospel, is that he says Peter acted rightly before certain persons came from James: then afterwards when they came, he changed: and that Paul himself rebuked him and refuted him on this very point. But he had changed so as not to eat with the Gentiles, and to use Jewish foods.

He says this was rebuked by himself, since before those from James had come, he lived with the Gentiles: afterwards, fearing as it were the delegates of James, he lived with the Jews; for James preached Christ with Judaism mixed in, which he denies should be done. If therefore this has already been rebuked, and convicted and overcome and confirmed in Peter when he acted thus; certainly also these Galatians, when they have begun to do this, are to be corrected and changed: namely, so that they, believing in Jesus Christ through faith, may be justified by faith and not by the works of the law.

Thus far the account about himself: then follows admonition and exposition, sufficiently useful and fitting for what he desires to accomplish, to correct the Galatians, lest by following Judaism they fail to follow the Gospel; which is one thing: to have true faith in Christ, and to be justified by him, not by the works of the law. After this he gives other arguments, that justification comes from Christ and not from the law nor from works; and this is the whole passage, which I mentioned above, up to that place which begins thus: but if, while seeking to be justified in Christ, we ourselves also are found sinners, is Christ therefore a minister of sin? And the rest. But now let us return to the narration (the reason for which we have stated) concerning his own person. You have heard, he says, my manner of life at one time in Judaism.

Lest he seem to be narrating something new about himself, he says you have heard my life: for this is what he meant by manner of life: you know the manner of living, which manner I had at one time when I was in Judaism, and how I conducted myself, because beyond measure I persecuted the Church of God. Not only, he says, was I a Jew and followed the law, but I also persecuted the Church and fought against it. Therefore I who was such as to persecute the Church cannot today, having been converted from Judaism, persecute the Church which I was persecuting; I cannot, I say, approve that I should both follow Judaism and persecute the Church: and at the same time, as I said above, in Judaism I understood nothing nor received anything that pertained to the Church. I was not therefore taught by men: I was fighting against the Church: it is too little to say I was fighting against it: what did he add?

And I advanced in Judaism beyond many of my contemporaries in my nation more abundantly: and though I had colleagues, I would surpass them all equally in zeal and profession in Judaism: and I would act more abundantly, that is, I would be stronger and more vehement in asserting Judaism: being zealous for the traditions of my fathers, so as to set forth and hand on in the same manner the traditions of the fathers, that is, the readings of Judaism and of the law. Zealous, that is, an imitator, and as it were in a kind of rivalry; who also wished to be the same as either my fathers were, or the traditions themselves.

Such then having been his life, whence so great a conversion? He adds: But when it pleased him who separated me from my mother's womb, and called me by his grace, to reveal his Son in me, that I might preach him among the Gentiles. The order is: but when it pleased God to reveal his Son in me. Now what is it that it pleased God to reveal his Son in me? That is, that I might know Christ: for first one must know, then preach. Thus he says: who separated me from my mother's womb, that is, caused me to be born. Likewise also he called me by his grace; that is, he called me forth that I might come to his grace and know God: for no one knows God except one who has been called. He called me therefore, and it pleased him to reveal his Son in me; that I, he says, might know him, and so thereafter that I might preach him among the Gentiles.

After this had pleased him, what followed?

Immediately I conferred not with flesh and blood. Therefore, he says, what I preach has been revealed to me. And I labored not at all in a carnal manner. For this labor is not of that kind. For if he announces divine things, and those things which have the grace of God in the soul, that is not labor; but the labor of flesh and blood is to run about, to bear the toil of a journey, to travel through provinces and nations. But I conferred not, he says, with flesh and blood. For flesh and blood is the whole outward man. Neither did I go up to Jerusalem to those who were apostles before me. For from thence it might have appeared that he had learned from men or through men, if he had gone to Jerusalem and lived long with the elders and his predecessors.

I did not, he says, go to the apostles my predecessors, I did not learn from them; but I went away into Arabia, and again returned to Damascus.

This is what he received through revelation from God, that he should preach among the Gentiles. I went away, he says, into Arabia. How long a journey! And when he returned to Damascus, how different a place? Then after three years I came to Jerusalem to see Peter. He had therefore already preached among the Gentiles for three years. What else, if not that he had received from God to preach Christ revealed to him among the Gentiles? After three years, he says, I came to Jerusalem. Then he adds the reason: to see Peter. For indeed if the foundation of the Church was laid in Peter, as was said in the Gospel; Paul, to whom all things had been revealed, knew that he ought to see Peter; as one to whom so great authority had been given by Christ, yet not in order to learn anything from him.

Then what does he add?

And I stayed with him fifteen days. I stayed, then, only that long. Could I in so few days have learned so great a knowledge of God from Peter in so short a time? But other of the apostles I saw none, except James the brother of the Lord. He added this also with great learning and great skill: first because he spoke thus, I saw none other of the apostles—for the Symmachians make James an apostle as it were the twelfth—and those follow him who join the observance of Judaism to our Lord Jesus Christ, though they also confess Jesus Christ: for they say that he himself is Adam, and is the universal soul, and other such blasphemies.

Therefore here Paul denied that James was an apostle, by saying but other of the apostles I saw none, because he said he had seen none other of the apostles except James. And the reason why James is mentioned is added: the brother of the Lord, who was held to be a brother according to the flesh. But when he said brother, he denied him to be an apostle. He ought however to have been visited with honor. But neither could he learn anything from James, since he holds different views. Nor indeed from Peter, either because he spent only a few days with Peter, or because James is not an apostle and is in heresy. But he added James as well. I saw therefore by name what James handles and preaches: and yet since this blasphemy has become known to me, it has been repudiated by me, as it must also be repudiated by you, O Galatians.

For you cannot say: you deny James, and therefore repudiate what we follow, because you have not seen James. He added therefore: I saw James also. Nor is there any mistake: which James he calls the brother of the Lord, that is, the author of your opinion. Thus he counted for nothing with me. And though I did not follow him, I know his opinion. Since therefore nothing is unknown to me, and he was unable to persuade me, it is in vain that you follow him.

Now the things which I write to you, behold, before God, I lie not.

Credence had to be given even by an oath. For to those who had already strayed from the faith, he says: the things which I write to you I lie not; behold, before God I profess that I am narrating all things as they were done.

Then I came into the regions of Syria and Cilicia, that is, to preach among the Gentiles.

But I was unknown by face to the churches of Judaea which are in Christ.

That is, the gospel which I was proclaiming was already known to nearly all the churches of Judaea (which Judaea, however, is in Christ, not in the Judaism of the Jews). Now there are many churches in Christ, to all of which the gospel which it holds concerning Christ was known. Yet I myself was unknown by face. What then does he show to all these? That he had already persuaded all of his gospel even while he was absent.

But they only heard that he who once persecuted us now preaches the faith.

He says this was a wonder to all, which indeed it ought to be a wonder: they heard, he says, all of them, that I who had been a Jew, who had once persecuted Christians and the churches, was now preaching the faith, that is, that all might have faith in Christ—the faith which he had formerly denied, which he had once fought against. It was therefore a wonder that he who had once fought against it should today preach the faith; which he himself had done.

in me, he says, they glorified the Lord.

Because all were now grasping the power of God, and called God great, because I had been converted; and I who had been a fighter against it was now a preacher. Thus it came about that they glorified God in me; that is, they called him great, who with a mind suddenly changed was preaching the Lord Christ, namely him whom I had previously fought against. For what is so great as for a mind to be conquered, and to receive the contrary, and to preach the faith which you had previously fought against? And if this is so, then you also ought to follow nothing else than what preaches to you the faith of Christ.

Then after fourteen years I went up again to Jerusalem with Barnabas, taking Titus also with me.

Once before, after three years; now after fourteen years again, he says, I went up. Therefore the gospel announced by me to the Gentiles I received through revelation, I did not learn it from men nor through man. With Barnabas and taking Titus. These he has as witnesses, through whom he proves that his gospel was given to him through revelation; since indeed Barnabas, he says, went up with me; he also took Titus; whose faith and gospel were proved to all.

But I went up according to revelation, and I set before them the gospel which I preach among the Gentiles.

He strives to prove by great arguments that the gospel given to him through revelation, which he was to preach among the Gentiles, was from God: for I went up, he says, to Jerusalem according to revelation; so that I might also teach all; even the Jews themselves; I set before them, he says, the gospel which I preach among the Gentiles. In which it is understood, from the fact that no one contradicted, no one resisted, that this gospel is true and one: since what I preach, he says, among the Gentiles I set before them in Jerusalem. But the people might have been ignorant. What did he add? But privately to those who seemed to be pillars.

That is, through whom the commandments of God and the gospel were handed on, as to the apostles and the rest; to these, he says, privately I set forth the gospel which I preach among the Gentiles, so that if there were anything which they handed on differently, they might correct it, or if I myself handed on anything differently, they might amend it. This therefore was the reason why I went up to Jerusalem: and for this reason it was revealed to me that I should go up, so that the good gospel might more easily be recognized—both mine among the Gentiles and theirs among the Jews. Now that he showed it to them privately is so that they might remove the Jews from the midst, and communicate the mysteries among themselves, those who knew them. To all of whom, since there was one opinion and one gospel, what does he strive to persuade? That nothing new ought to be added, and nothing joined to it.

Whence the Galatians sin today by following Judaism and the discipline either of circumcision or of the sabbath or of other things: Lest perhaps I should run or had run in vain.

That is, lest I should not preach the gospel fully: for if I have preached something less, I have run in vain, or even now run in vain. For if circumcision profits, and the observance of the sabbath and of other things, salvation will not be from the grace of Christ, and one runs in vain.

But not even Titus, who was with me, being a Greek, was compelled to be circumcised.

He explains that nothing at all was accomplished by those who are false apostles, that is, by those who think that to the gospel of Paul—that is, to the announcement concerning the Son of God Christ, through whom is faith and certain salvation—to this gospel, I say, must be added circumcision, the observance of the sabbath, and the rest; these things, he says, availed nothing; nor was Titus persuaded, who was indeed, he says, a Greek, that is a pagan, to be compelled to be circumcised, and therefore he was not persuaded, nor did they even dare to compel him. Thus the agreement of all who were at Jerusalem was made with the apostle concerning the gospel. Whence the Galatians sin, who think this new thing must be added.

But because of false brethren secretly brought in, who crept in to spy out our freedom which we have in Christ, that they might bring us into bondage, for a time we yielded to subjection.

Some read this thus: Nor did we yield even for an hour to subjection; and the sense is complete with what precedes, that neither was the Greek Titus compelled to be circumcised, nor did we yield even for an hour to subjection; that is, so as to give way in any matters. Yet since in very many codices, both Latin and Greek, the reading is: for a time we yielded to subjection, that is, we bore what seemed to them to be done, but not so as to follow it always; it is proved in many ways that the reading ought to be thus: for a time we yielded to subjection; first because he truly did yield; for he also circumcised Timothy on account of the Jews, as he says in the Acts of the Apostles. Therefore the apostle ought not to have lied.

Then neither would anyone say for an hour, if it had been necessary to deny the deed altogether.

And certainly if he withstood Peter, what is the meaning here of nor did we yield even for an hour? Likewise if it was said above that not even Titus, who was with me, being a Greek, was compelled to be circumcised; therefore not in all things, nor always, nor greatly; finally on account of the brethren brought in, who were mixing Judaism with Christianity. And from this he declared on account of the Jews his own constant purpose, that he would sometimes yield, even in those matters which are true. For from this comes that sense: to the Jews I became as a Jew that I might gain the Jews, and the rest of such things.

Therefore now on account of the false brethren secretly brought in (since many false apostles, whom he calls false brethren) certain ones began to add, to creep in with their persuasions, and to spy out the freedom of the apostolic words; that is, they desired to enter into us. Were they then true apostles of Christ? Or were they testing our freedom which we have in Christ? When therefore we saw their design, to lead us into bondage, for a time indeed we yielded to subjection, that is, for a brief time so as to do certain things. We must understand this to be permitted not to just anyone, but to one who is perfect and confirmed in faith, so that for the sake of Christ he may do certain things which are outside the rule; provided that what he does benefits the law, that is, that souls may be set free.

And this has been proved in many places, and we shall show it to have been done by Paul, that he yields not to the true rule; and from that point corrects, and leads many to the true rule. Hence also is that whereby he concedes second marriages, and marriages themselves, and also foods and all foods: and though he forbids food offered to idols, yet he concedes it to confidence and certain faith. For when Christ is in the soul, and Christ is nourished through faith in us, to yield for a time to a rule that is not true is not dangerous; provided however that we do this for the purpose that by that first fellowship we may be able to lead them to the true rule. Finally he thus adds: we yielded to subjection, but for a time, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with you; you who have been instructed by us.

O Galatians, we did not yield so that you also should do so, but so that those might be satisfied and led to the true rule, and that the truth of the gospel might remain with you.

But from those who seem to be something (what they once were matters nothing to me; God does not accept the face of man).

So placed, "from those," as if from those who seem to be something, or from those who came forth from them as pseudo-apostles, yet they were something, that is, they were changed, they now followed the gospel. Whoever therefore now seem to be something, and have arisen from these, such as they were before, but now upright (for this is to be something): what they were before, that is, at some time, he says matters nothing to me: for it suffices me what one is now, and I do not care what one was before.

And he adds the reason: for God does not accept the face of man, but the mind, but the faith: whether one was Greek, whether Jew, whether something else, God does not accept this, but what one is; and whether one has received faith and the gospel: for God does not accept the person to the prejudice of truth: neither did I accept those who were said to be pillars. This therefore is what he says: for those who are reputed to be something added nothing to me, that is, they taught me nothing, they added nothing, but they approved my gospel. Therefore, nothing ought to have been added to the gospel for you either, which I proclaimed to you.

But on the contrary, when they saw that the gospel of the uncircumcision was entrusted to me, as that of the circumcision to Peter; he who worked in Peter for the apostleship of the circumcision worked also in me among the Gentiles: and when they recognized the grace that was given to me, Peter and John, who seemed to be pillars, gave the right hand. The order: those chief men, Peter and John and James, who seemed to be pillars, gave me the right hand; that is, they granted their agreement, when they saw that the gospel of the uncircumcision had been entrusted to me, that is, through the Gentiles, entrusted in the same manner as the gospel of the circumcision was entrusted to Peter, that he might preach among the Jews.

But why it was entrusted to me as to them is added: for he who worked in Peter for the apostleship of the circumcision worked also in me among the Gentiles

that is, one God and the same God himself worked so that Peter should preach to the Jews, and in me so that I should preach to the Gentiles: which grace being recognized, which was given to me, namely that I too in like manner was made an apostle to the Gentiles by the grace of God; Peter and James and John, who seemed to be pillars, that is, who sustained the Church as pillars sustain rooftops and the rest, were compelled; these, I say, such and so great men, gave me the right hand, that is, they joined friendship and peace and firmness, and declared that they held one gospel. You therefore, Galatians, sin; and you follow neither my gospel, nor that of Peter, James, John, who are pillars of the Church, while you add those things which have been approved by no one.

For this is what he accomplishes in this whole narrative: that the Galatians sin by adding to faith in Christ the observance of the Jewish law and of the sabbath and of circumcision.

And of Barnabas's fellowship.

They gave the right hand of fellowship not to me alone, but also to Barnabas, who was my companion. Moreover he added this, lest he should seem to have been trusted alone. But the gospel of Paul is proved, if the gospel of Barnabas also is proved, who was Paul's companion; to whom fellowship was given through the right hand by those who held the apostleship in Jerusalem and proclaimed the gospel to the Jews. He proves that there is one true gospel among all, and that the Galatians err. That we should preach among the Gentiles, but they among the circumcision. To this end they gave the right hand, granting agreement in the gospel both to me and to Barnabas, that we should preach among the Gentiles, but they should preach the gospel to the Jews, that is, among the circumcision.

Only that we should be mindful of the poor.

Thus if anything needed to be corrected, they would correct and admonish: if indeed they had thought anything needed to be added, I would have added it. What then was that, that we should be mindful of the poor? Paul does this in every one of his letters. When therefore Paul and Barnabas were treating of these matters with John and Peter and James, the gospel was admitted in the same manner as Paul hands it down, and was confirmed. Concerning this one point of the dispute, that works are not to be admitted unto salvation, they did not hear gladly: yet they admonished that we should only be mindful of the poor. Thus they also agree that the hope of salvation does not lie there, if we perform works toward the poor, but they only admonish that we should be mindful of the poor; not that we should consume our every action therein, but that we should share with those who have not what we are able to have.

Only that we should be mindful of the poor.

We should not place our care and solicitude in this, and the whole power of preserving our salvation. Thus he was nearly corrected and admonished in this matter, yet he does not confess it: that we should be mindful, he says, not that we should do this, but that we should hold it in memory; which is less than to devote effort to this and to fulfil this alone. Which I was also solicitous to do, even this very thing. He added more, so that even in this matter beyond the gospel which he preached, he had solicitude to be mindful of the poor and to provide whatever he could. Even if in truth no one is poor, provided he keeps the faith and, believing in God, awaits the riches of his salvation. For the present sustenance is both small and sufficient, and does not greatly concern either the one who provides or the one who receives.

But when Peter came to Antioch, I withstood him to his face, because he was to be blamed.

Not only, he says, was my gospel approved by those apostles who were in Jerusalem, nor was I only admonished to be mindful of the poor, which is a good duty, yet necessary; which duty we ourselves fulfilled, and I was solicitous to do this very thing; but also, he says, I did not keep silent about Peter's sin; in which he shows his own freedom, and his confidence in his gospel, since he rebuked what was being done otherwise by Peter. And again also that very thing, that Peter, being rebuked, would rather have burst forth to rebuke, if there were any fault in me; and if I were not acting rightly in the gospel, he would have exposed me; and being injured he would not have spared. When Peter, he says, came to Antioch, I did not speak through the church and before the people, but I withstood him to his face, that is, I openly contradicted him.

And whence came the confidence?

Not that he himself rebuked him, but he convicts and accuses him as having been rebuked by all, because he was to be blamed. Therefore Peter also sinned by the judgment of the people, and was accused; and the people, if there were any sin in me, would have rebuked me in like manner, just as they rebuked him.

For before certain persons came from James, he ate with the Gentiles: but when they had come, he withdrew himself, fearing those who were of the circumcision. And the rest of the Jews also agreed with him, so that even Barnabas was carried away by their dissimulation. He openly explains the sin itself, what he had done. Which sin he says he rebuked in Peter; perhaps he would now have kept silent about it: for it would have sufficed that Peter was corrected by the rebuke of the people and by this man's open accusation: but since it is profitable, and especially necessary for the letter, it is therefore narrated.

Wherein he accomplishes two things: first, that his own private gospel was not rebuked, and that when he rebuked Peter he heard no rebuke from Peter; then that which I said is especially necessary, namely that since the Galatians, setting aside the first gospel, thought something needed to be added to the rule of the gospel, so that they should also observe the sabbath and circumcision and live in the same manner as Jews; because the Galatians do this, therefore this letter is written to them: whence it is most fittingly narrated that this very thing was rebuked by Paul in Peter, and the people rebuked it: whence it is gathered that these also sin.

But how and what Peter admitted, he adds thus by way of narration: for before, he says, before certain persons came from James, he ate with the Gentiles, holding the gospel whole and its rule, that Christ should be proclaimed equally to Jews and Gentiles alike, and that the food of the Jews should not be observed, but that one should live simply after the manner of the Gentiles. This, he says, Peter did before certain persons came from James. For James the brother of the Lord, who is the author of the letter to the Symmachians, was the first at Jerusalem to think it incumbent upon himself both to preach Christ and to live as the Jews, doing all things which the law of the Jews prescribes, that is, which the Jews understood they must observe. When therefore certain persons had come from James to Peter; he feared, he says, and fearing withdrew himself so as not to eat with the Gentiles.

But he rebukes this, that he had previously eaten with the Gentiles and now withdrew himself, fearing those who were of the circumcision

that is, the men coming from James. And that is a small matter which he himself did; hence the great sin, that the others agreed with him. And the rest of the Jews also agreed with him. Let us understand here Jews who had nevertheless already received Christ, so that they agreed with him, both receiving Christ and the Jewish discipline and observance; for unless we understand this, what will it mean, they agreed with him, if those living after their own manner were acting according to Jewish discipline?

But those who had already received the gospel by believing in Christ, just as he himself had previously eaten with the Gentiles, afterwards when he withdrew himself and feared those who had come from James (whom he feared, namely men of the circumcision), so the rest agreed, so as not to live with the Gentiles, but with the circumcision, that is with the Jews, even they who had previously been Jews. So that even Barnabas was carried away by their dissimulation. Thus, he says, they dissembled badly in living with the Jews, having abandoned the Gentiles, so that Barnabas agreed with them: of whom it was said above that he is Paul's companion and holds the gospel whole: yet he agreed with them and with their dissimulation. What therefore do we understand by dissimulation?

For even Peter and Barnabas and the rest of the Jews had truly passed over to this, to lead their life also by Jewish discipline, but for a time on account of those present, and they dissembled: and therefore, he says, Barnabas also agreed with their dissimulation. This is how it is to be understood: for neither Peter nor the rest had passed over to Jewish discipline, but had agreed for a time; which indeed sometimes happens by feigned agreement: yet wherein did Peter sin? Because he had not feigned those things in order to win over the Jews, so as to agree with them; which Paul himself did, and glories in having done, so as to agree with the Jews, but in order to gain them: but because Peter dissembled indeed, yet sinned in this, that he withdrew himself fearing those who were of the circumcision.

Therefore because he dissembled out of fear and abstained from the Gentiles, and Barnabas himself agreed with that very dissimulation, therefore, he says, I openly withstood him and accused him, that he had not acted rightly in thus dissembling out of that fear.

Then he continues thus,

But when I saw that they walked not uprightly according to the truth of the gospel.

They held the gospel indeed and held it whole, and understood that one ought not to live in the manner of those who are of the circumcision; but because they dissembled, therefore they both interpreted the gospel badly and did not walk by a straight path toward the truth of the gospel. They walked. When therefore I saw this, I said to Peter before all: that is, what he said above, I withstood him to his face; and I spoke openly, and I spoke before all: if you, being a Jew, live after the manner of the Gentiles, how do you compel the Gentiles to judaize? Paul certainly understood also that Peter had dissembled out of fear, so as not to live with the Gentiles. And so he does not charge him with this; because he could have said, I dissembled. What therefore did he charge him with?

You lived with the Gentiles, and you live with the Gentiles: for if you have agreement for a time, without doubt you live after the manner of the Gentiles: since the dissimulation deceives many, you sin: for you compel the Gentiles to judaize. Thus he shows both that he understood Peter to have agreed with the Jews, but by dissimulation; and yet that he sinned, first because he feared those who had come; then because the rest were being deceived and compelled to judaize, not understanding that he was dissembling. This therefore he gathers, and records that he said: if you, Peter, being a Jew, live after the manner of the Gentiles, that is, you live with the Gentiles, how do you compel the Gentiles themselves to judaize? That is, to follow Jewish discipline both in foods and in observances?

We who are Jews by nature, and not sinners from among the Gentiles; knowing that a man is not justified by the works of the law, but through faith in Christ Jesus: and we have believed in Christ Jesus, that we might be justified by faith and not by the works of the law: because by the works of the law shall no flesh be justified. This is still part of the speech of Paul himself, accusing Peter and speaking to him that he was not rightly consenting to Judaism, and was thus inducing the Gentiles to judaize. We, he says, who are Jews—that is, I and you, Peter, and the rest who are sinners—yet not from among the Gentiles, but we are Jews; we have indeed taken up faith in Christ, for which reason, since we were Jews, we took it up; namely because we know that a man is not justified by the works of the law, but is justified through faith, and through faith in Jesus Christ.

Since, therefore, we knew this, we, he says, have believed and do believe in Christ Jesus, that we might be justified by faith, not by the works of the law; because by the works of the law shall no flesh be justified, that is, no man who is in the flesh. If, therefore, knowing this we believed that justification comes through faith, we surely err if we now return to Judaism, from which we departed, so that we might be justified not by works but by faith, and faith in Christ: for faith alone gives justification and sanctification. Thus any flesh whatsoever, whether Jews or those from among the Gentiles, is justified not by works, nor by observance of the law of the Jews, but by faith.

But if, while seeking to be justified in Christ, we ourselves also are found to be sinners, is Christ therefore a minister of sin?

For since Jews are sinners, and sinners not from among the Gentiles, and since having received faith we do in Christ what Jews do—for we took up faith in Christ because we understood that a man is not justified by the works of the law—in which we wish to be justified in Christ; by observing the works of the law, we are made sinners: it now comes about that Christ is a minister of sin; whom we received precisely so that we might not sin; but now, having received him, since we return to sins, that is, we judaize, has Christ become a minister of sin? But this, he says, God forbid: that is, one ought not to think thus, nor to act thus, so that Christ becomes a minister of sin, who suffered for this very purpose that sin might perish.

For if I build again the things which I destroyed, I constitute myself a transgressor. For when I, a Jew, believed in Christ, I destroyed the law and the works of the law: but now, after belief in Christ, if I return and perform the works of the law, I build what I destroyed, and I am now a transgressor, who acts contrary to what utility and virtue and reason demand. But of whom am I a transgressor? Not of the law, but of Christ: for I drag the commandments of Christ into transgression if I return to Judaism and begin to observe those things which I condemned as to be observed; because I understood that a man is not justified by them, but by Christ.

For I through the law am dead to the law, that I might live unto God. It may seem that Paul spoke of two laws, one of Christ and another of Moses, so that he says he is dead to that very law which was given to the Jews, through the law which was given by Christ: so that the meaning would be, I through the law am dead to the law; that is, through the law of Christ I am dead to the law previously given to the Jews. It may also seem—as Paul frequently says, and the Saviour himself as well—that he named two laws here for this reason, because the same law is as it were twofold: one when it is understood carnally, another when it is understood spiritually.

Now formerly it was understood carnally; and the law was served through works and through circumcision and the other observances understood carnally: but after the Saviour appeared as the true and spiritual light, the law began to be understood spiritually; becoming as it were another, while being the same law. The meaning therefore will be: for I through the law which is now understood spiritually am dead to the law; namely to that law which was understood carnally. And since it is so, because I nevertheless understand the law spiritually, I am dead to the carnal law, that I might live unto God. For one lives unto God when he understands those precepts set down in the law not carnally but spiritually; that is, what it is truly to be circumcised, what the true sabbath is, and the rest, which have been treated and will be treated in many places.

I am crucified with Christ.

This means to have now received another law, so that the old man is now fixed to the cross, that is, all the flesh, that is, the whole old man, and the desires of the flesh. For this is what Christ by his mystery has also accomplished in me. We are therefore fixed together with Christ to the cross.

Yet I live, now not I, but Christ lives in me.

That is, I have now become spirit, understanding the commandments of God spiritually. Before, I devoted myself entirely to the flesh, and either served its desires or commanded them, understanding nothing spiritually. Now therefore, since I myself live spiritually, Christ lives in me. But what I now live in the flesh, I live in faith of the Son of God and of Christ.

This is truly to live spiritually: that when one lives in the flesh, he does not live for the flesh, nor from the flesh, but lives for God and for Christ in faith in them—which is to live spiritually, to think of him, to speak of him, to believe in him, to tend toward him with desire, to flee the world, to cast out from the soul all things that are in the world: this is to live by faith, to hope for no good from any other than from Christ and from God: this is to live in faith both of God and of Christ, who loved me and delivered so great a benefit, that he gave himself for us to death and to the cross, and thus freed us from sins.

And so he continues,

I am not ungrateful to the grace of God, as though, when he himself has made me an heir through Christ, and Christ has delivered himself for me, I, having dismissed all the hope which I have in Christ, should return to the hope of the law so as to believe that I am justified by the works of the law. This is to be ungrateful to him who has bestowed so much upon me, as to offer himself for me, and to free me from sins through sins punished in himself. For if righteousness is through the law, then Christ died in vain. A full conclusion concerning the errors of the Galatians and of those who add Judaism to Christianity: for, he says, if righteousness is through the law, Christ died in vain.

For if Christ died for this reason, because justification did not come from the law, I ought nevertheless to follow Christ: but if even after the coming of Christ I believe that I am justified through the law, then Christ did not die on my account, and he died in vain, that is, he died without cause. It is contradictory and self-opposing to believe in Christ and to follow the works of the law; for since the law by its own works did not justify a man, Christ came for this reason, that through his death justification might come to man: now since there is a return to the law after faith in Christ, Christ will seem to have died in vain, as though he had provided nothing for us; since the law was already providing this.

But the law was not providing this; and therefore Christ came, that he himself might provide it: therefore Christ did not die in vain; but through him justification comes to us: and if this is so, righteousness does not come from the works of the law.

O foolish Galatians, who has bewitched you, before whose eyes Christ Jesus was proscribed, and crucified in you?

Those who are bewitched are only those who excel in some good, and they suffer it from the malicious and envious: and since they had received good from the true gospel, and believed in Christ, and hoped for his promises, now that they have begun to add also the discipline of Judaism, who, he says, has bewitched you, so that you departed from your good? You are therefore foolish, that is, not understanding. But what have they done, on account of which they are foolish? That they were persuaded to practice Judaism. Therefore Christ has been proscribed, that is, his goods have been dispersed and sold, which were indeed in us, and have been proscribed by the persuasion of Judaism, sold and lost.

Therefore foolish are those before whose eyes Jesus Christ was proscribed, so that those goods might perish in you who were present, as those things perish which are proscribed: because you did not resist, you did not fight back, and for this reason you are foolish. Furthermore, in this sentence there is also this: that Christ was crucified in you; for those Jews who persuaded you to follow Judaism did to you what they did to Christ, to lift him onto the cross: so also by persuading you to the discipline of Judaism, they crucified Christ in you as well. Foolish therefore, you Galatians, you have lost Christ and his goods from your souls. Someone therefore, I know not who, has bewitched you in your goods.

This only I wish to learn from you. I will raise nothing, I will reprove nothing; this only, he says, I wish to learn, and to learn from you: did you receive the Spirit by the works of the law, or by the hearing of faith by which you began to be better in the knowledge of God? Whence, he says, did it come to you to receive the Spirit—from the works of the law, or from the hearing of faith? For when I preached the gospel to you, you received the Spirit by the hearing of faith: therefore not by the works of the law. Or, if not by the works of the law, why do you now add the Jewish discipline, so as to believe that you receive the Spirit by the works of the law, and think of God and hope in God, when you have already received the Spirit by the hearing of faith? That is, because you heard that faith in Christ was to be followed?

But if by hearing, it is contrary to faith when you believe that you receive the Spirit by the works of the law, since the Spirit is given and was given to you by this faith alone in Christ.

Are you so foolish, that having begun in the Spirit, you are now consumed in the flesh?

He expressed what it is to be from the works of the law, and what it is to be from the hearing of faith: for the works of the law do nothing other than satisfy the flesh, suffer affection from the flesh, and serve the flesh. According to the flesh, therefore, is the mind of one who believes he is justified by the works of the law. You therefore, he says, are so foolish, so uncomprehending, that while you add works to your justification—which is to be minded according to the flesh—having begun in the Spirit through the gospel given by me, so that by the hearing of faith in Christ you received the Spirit, you will now end the course of your action and life consumed in the flesh; that is, by works undertaken for the flesh and according to the flesh?

Have you suffered so many things in vain?

Such a speech, which reproves and admonishes, and yet reproves the reproof itself, easily leads to patience: for he reproves what he said—you have suffered so many things in vain—by adding, if indeed in vain. But he admonishes when he says, you have suffered so many things, so that since they had endured many things bravely when they received the faith, they might also live spiritually; for one who begins to live spiritually, while casting off worldly things, while enduring with his new man the envy of the Greeks and of ignorant Gentiles, must necessarily suffer many things, which he says the Galatians have indeed suffered. But since you have suffered so many things, this is all the more to be lamented: that having suffered not in vain, you have not arrived at the reward from faith, on account of which you have suffered so many things.

Lest he seem to drive them to despair by what he said—in vain—he corrected his reproof by saying, if indeed in vain: for they can be corrected, so that what they suffered may not be in vain, but may have as the cause of their perseverance the reward of faith and the confirmation of the promises from faith in Christ.

He therefore who supplies you with the Spirit, and works mighty deeds among you, did he do so from works of the law, or from the hearing of faith? Because he said above, you have suffered so many things, and set forth what they seemed to have suffered, or things of such a kind, yet in what they endured they certainly had virtues with respect to endurance: he therefore joins together, who supplies you with the Spirit, works mighty deeds among you, by which virtues you suffered so many things and endured them. From this he now causes them to understand that God worked many mighty deeds in them; and if he worked mighty deeds, he gave them the Spirit. Therefore, having confirmed that the Spirit was given to them, the question rightly proceeds, whether God worked mighty deeds in them from works of the law or from the hearing of faith.

But certainly not from works; for no works went forth from you, but you heard the faith and obeyed the faith; and for that reason God worked mighty deeds in you: and if he worked them, he gave you the Spirit: but he worked them and gave the Spirit, inasmuch as you suffered many and such great things. But this without a why? Without cause? Which he nevertheless corrected, that it was not without cause: for he hopes they can be corrected. He returns therefore to the confirmation that all these things came to them from the hearing of faith: and he establishes this, that nothing wonderful and incredible ever comes to pass unless the faith of the gospel is obeyed. He therefore gives a comparison from the reading which contains the admirable sufferings that the Galatians suffered and endured through faith, and therefore through the Spirit given and the power worked in them by God.

Just as Abraham believed God and it was reckoned to him as righteousness.

In Genesis it is set down that Abraham believed God, and it was reckoned to him as righteousness: thus God works mighty deeds when faith has arisen in the souls of men, and faith so that they believe in God. It was reckoned, he says, to Abraham as righteousness, because he believed God. Therefore you also have suffered so many things and endured and overcome: and God worked and works mighty deeds in you, because through the hearing of faith you believed God. It is understood therefore that those who are of faith.

These are sons of Abraham.

For to the seed of Abraham many things were promised; and he himself was received unto righteousness by faith. Therefore whoever are of faith, if they are sons of Abraham, as we have often noted. Every mystery that was accomplished by our Lord Jesus Christ seeks faith alone: for it was accomplished for us, and accomplished for our resurrection and liberation, if we have faith in the mystery of Christ and in Christ. For the divinity prefigured and sent this before, that man should be justified by faith. As therefore it was reckoned to Abraham as righteousness, because he had faith; so also we, if we have faith in Christ and his mystery, shall be sons of Abraham, that is, our whole life shall be reckoned to us as righteousness. Finally he adds thus: and the mystery concerning Abraham was enacted for this reason, that men might be justified by faith, namely by faith in Christ.

But Scripture, foreseeing that God justifies the Gentiles by faith, foretold to Abraham, that is by prophecy, so that what was being done concerning one man might be proclaimed concerning others for ages to come.

Foreseeing, he says, Scripture, that is seeing what things are to come; Scripture, that is the prophecy which is written. Foreseeing what? That God is to justify the Gentiles by faith, and therefore the same Scripture foretold to Abraham. But what did it foretell? That the Gentiles are justified by faith. Then he subjoins the example of Scripture, that they shall be blessed; that is, in which Abraham was reckoned unto righteousness, namely by faith. This example is from Genesis. Therefore those who are of faith shall be blessed, which means it shall be reckoned to them as righteousness, and they shall be blessed by God; but they shall be blessed by God when justified: but to be justified is to be freed from the law of bondage.

Therefore those who are of faith shall be blessed, because Abraham was blessed by faith, they shall be blessed. All therefore is faith. How is this applied to the Galatians? Namely because blessing and justification come from faith alone, not from works. Those therefore erred who, besides the faith which they received in Jesus Christ our Lord, thought that the law and the precepts of the law must also be added, that is, that they should believe justification comes from works. Finally he adds in such a way as to teach also the contrary, what comes from works; lest the Galatians should think, as it were, that they retain faith in Christ, and nonetheless that it can profit them more if they do something and act from works.

But on the contrary the Apostle denies that blessing comes from works: but what is even more serious, and contrary to blessing, that those who act from works are under a curse.

For as many as are of works of the law are under a curse. He therefore added with great force that not only are those who are of works not blessed, but also that those who are of works of the law are under a curse. But when he said, of works of the law, let us understand that there are also works of Christianity, especially those which the Apostle often enjoins, as he says it was enjoined upon him, that we be mindful of the poor and the other things which in this Apostle are retained as precepts for living, and which works are enjoined by the Apostle to be fulfilled by every Christian. Let us therefore understand other works of the law, namely observances, sacrifices of the lamb now that the Passover has been fulfilled through Christ, and the other works which they also perform concerning circumcision and foods, whether to be kept or to be provided.

Therefore when we do not know the works of the law, Christ who is in heaven and descended even to the flesh, joins and unites both churches. He is therefore the mediator, and by his mystery disposed through angels, as mediator he frees this church, that is the members of the church, and recalls them to the higher Church. Therefore since Christ is the mediator.

But a mediator is not of one, but God is one.

It is Christ who recalls and joins his members to the Church. Does the law therefore do this? Is the law a mediator? If therefore the law is not a mediator; for since it is a law of deeds, it does not join things that are separated; for it judges only concerning deeds: which was therefore interposed, he says, until Christ should come, that is the seed to whom the inheritance is promised, in whose hand is disposed what was disposed through angels, who is the mediator, and a mediator certainly between two. And I said two; but God is one: therefore a mediator of God alone cannot exist, because God is one.

Thus in no way does the law justify, in no way does the law of deeds obtain the inheritance

because those are heirs who draw their origin from thence, and receive the Spirit from thence, whence the inheritance shall come; namely with Christ joining those things that are separated, and freeing the part of the church which is here held by the errors of the world, and recalling it to the heavenly church: for he alone is the mediator. But a mediator, as we have taught, is not of one: for the rest after God are not one; but God alone is one: therefore whatever is outside God is many, which can be joined, because they are from thence, or are separated, because the mystery was so and is so even now, that they may be joined; because they are far otherwise divided and hostile and destined to perish. Therefore since God alone exists, the mediator is besides God, who nevertheless derived from Habakkuk that the just man lives by faith and not by works.

It must therefore be considered that he did not say, a man or a male lives by faith, lest he should give occasion for despising the works of virtue, but the just man lives by faith: so that whoever was faithful, being about to live through faith, could not come to faith or live in it in any other way, unless he had first been just, and had ascended to faith by the purity of life as by certain steps. It can therefore happen that if someone is just, yet he does not live without faith in Christ. Let us also make something similar to what is said, the just man lives by faith, and say: the chaste man lives by faith, the wise man lives by faith, the brave man lives by faith. Certainly that faith alone justifies, theological doctrine, if we speak strictly, does not allow. For is not hope also necessary, and above all charity, for justification? A mediator is not of one.

But the mediator himself reconciles and joins by a certain mystery those things which are separated from one another by a certain mystery.

But we are both those who were separated through our forebears, and joined again through forebears indeed, but according to Christ, that is according to faith: whence it appears that without a mediator we cannot be freed. But if this is so, it is a vain hope to believe in justification and salvation from the law of deeds; which, as we said, is not a mediator: for Christ alone is the mediator, who joins those things between which he is mediator. Therefore justification and liberation come through Christ, not through the law of deeds.

This entire epistle to the Galatians, as we have said, works toward and attacks this one thing, which the Galatians thought they should adopt: to preserve the faith of Christ and maintain the gospel while also following Jewish discipline and observance. The Apostle teaches that this is neither so nor did he so command, and that it is altogether in vain to hope for justification and salvation from the law. For all things come from faith: for the promise of liberation and justification and of the inheritance in heaven and above heaven was given to Abraham by faith, and likewise to his seed. But if this is so, he teaches that from the law and from its works fulfilled according to its precepts there comes absolutely no justification, no liberation, no inheritance: for which reason, since he seems to attack the law, a question is rightly raised.

What then, he says, is the law against the promises?

For if the law accomplishes nothing from its works, and it is the later thing; for the promises were made to Abraham first (because the law given through Moses holds the righteousness of deeds); in some way the law seems either to have been given in vain or to be contrary to the promise. For if works from the law accomplish nothing and avail nothing, the law is against the promises: for since the promises pledge the inheritance and justification, this law which is of works, while it draws away from faith, while it keeps souls occupied with another thing, so that the promises are not awaited from faith but from another thing, that is from works, the law is against the promises.

But it is not plausible that, since God gave the law, the same law should appear to have been given against the promises: which is certainly against the promises, if it occupies us with another thing, namely that we fulfill the works commanded by the law, and do not await from faith what was promised, so that we may obtain the inheritance of the heavens by faith in God.

But what he answers against this we shall receive as follows: for he says first in general terms: God forbid

that is, it is not fitting that what God did should appear to be against the promises, namely that he gave the law, which, while it keeps man occupied in other matters, empties the promise and makes it a matter of merit, not of faith; that is, so that having fulfilled all works we obtain justification by merit, not by faith alone. Therefore, God forbid, he says: then he sets forth the reason. For if a law had been given which could give life, righteousness would truly be from the law. We have said that the law given by Moses teaches nothing other than the sins that have been committed, and admonishes how they are to be avoided, and Scripture has concluded nothing else but to place all things under sin according to its precepts and concerning sin.

This law, he says, was not given for this purpose, that it could give life: for if it had been so given, righteousness would truly be from the law; but now it was not so given that life should be sought from it, but it was given so that by its writing it might both teach all sins and show them to be avoided. Therefore righteousness is not from the law, that is, justification does not come from it, nor salvation, but from faith, as was promised.

Finally he adds thus,

But Scripture has concluded all things under sin, so that the promise from faith in Jesus Christ might be given to those who believe.

This, he says, was done through Moses, that he himself should establish the law concerning sin, and all Scripture should be concluded concerning sin and those things that are under sin; so that what had been promised might come about through faith, and the inheritance through faith in Jesus Christ might be given to those who believe. Therefore in all these things what does he do or has he done? That faith in Jesus Christ alone may suffice for our justification and liberation.

But before faith came, we were kept under the law, shut up unto that faith which was to come, that it might be revealed lest the law should become empty, or contrary to the promises.

How does he call it necessary? Because the expectation was of faith to come, and the promise was through faith. Before, he says, faith came, we were kept, that is, in a certain manner, with the law as our guide and keeper, we cultivated an upright life by avoiding sin and by knowing it; so that when Christ came, we, as it were shut up unto that faith which was to come, might await his advent: believing in which faith, prepared through the law, since we avoided sins and performed the works of the law, we could easily receive the promise from his advent, namely faith in Christ.

Therefore we ought not to have faith in the law but in the advent: for we were shut up, he says, through faith; unto that faith, he says, which was to come, that is, of Christ; that the same faith might be revealed when he had come.

Therefore the law was our tutor in Christ. For just as those who teach boys point out the way of living as much as they can and show it, yet are not themselves masters of the full life: so also the law was as a tutor, but not one that would profit itself, nor a complete tutor for teaching life: but in Christ, he says, that is, up to Christ: and thus the law kept us with respect to sins by warning, so that in Christ we might be able to place all hope of salvation and life, and be justified by faith. Not by the law, but by faith, he says, that we may be freed, that is, that we may be justified, and receive the inheritance and the promise.

But when faith came

that is, Christ himself (for then faith arose, that is, began to have its time, so that there was faith, and we believed in him in whom all salvation is; and to the Jews on the contrary, who did not believe) we are no longer under a tutor, that is, we no longer live under the law, because we kept the precepts of the law which pertain to that very faith, we who were being prepared by the tutor of the law. When Christ himself came, that is, faith itself, we no longer live under a tutor, but we live or shall live by faith.

For you are all sons of God, through faith in Christ Jesus. For this is the inheritance, that we attain eternal life: for then we are sons of God. But whence is this? Through faith in Christ Jesus. Then we have faith in Jesus Christ, that is, while we believe in him, that he is the Son of God, and that he himself saves us, and that he accomplished that mystery for us, and all those things which we have spoken of in the gospel. But this is to be noted here, that when he was speaking of matters, he turned to the person, where he shows a certain tenderness by which he might more easily persuade. All of you, he says, are sons. Above, we are under a tutor; now he addresses them as it were in an apostrophe: you are sons, he says, of God; but sons through faith in Jesus Christ.

For as many of you as have been baptized into Christ, have put on Christ: this is, you are sons of God in Christ. What is that in Christ? Because whoever is baptized in Christ is now a son of God: for whoever is baptized is baptized into Christ: but one baptized in Christ has put on Christ. For whoever is baptized has Christ; and is now in Christ, while he has Christ: while he has Christ, he is a son of God, because Christ is the Son of God.

For in Christ there is neither Jew nor Greek, neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female: for you are all one in Christ Jesus. He removes therefore the remaining distinctions of men, which can arise either from condition, or from human nature, or from nation. For by these things we can be separated among ourselves, so that one is a Jew, another a Greek, one a slave, another free. These distinctions arise from condition or law; but those from nature. There is, he says, neither male nor female. What then? With all these removed, you are all one, he says, in Christ Jesus: because you are one, having received the Spirit from Christ, you are Christ. Therefore you are sons of God in Christ:

Therefore you are the seed of Abraham, heirs according to the promise.

If this is so, that which was promised to the seed of Abraham is fulfilled; whence also you are the seed of Abraham, according to faith; and you are in Christ, and therefore you are the seed of Abraham: according to the promise you are heirs, because the inheritance was promised to the seed of Abraham. But you, baptized in Christ Jesus, have received Christ, and you are Christ; therefore you are the seed of Abraham. If the inheritance was promised to the seed, the inheritance will also be given to you, and you are heirs according to the promise.

Now I say that as long as the heir is a child, he differs nothing from a servant, though he be lord of all.

He perseveres by means of an attached similitude, to teach what we were before the advent of Christ under the law, and what we became after he came. For resolving that question, whether the law was contrary to the promises, he says the law was given for a time, to hold us under its keeping: and delivering precepts it would keep us from sins, until the time should come for the advent of Christ, so that we might be able to be heirs of the promises.

Therefore, he says, heirs when they are children, which is the time under the law before the advent of Christ, when, I say, heirs are children, they differ nothing from servants: for although they are to be lords of all, because they are to be heirs, yet while the time has not come at which they exercise the full name of lord, they are held as it were in a certain duty of servitude; but not forever, until they are of their own age and freedom, and can fulfil both the name and the power of heir. This is what he adds.

But he is under guardians and stewards until the time appointed by the father.

Every heir, he says, while he is a child, is under guardians. That law of Moses, as under a guardian and steward, kept those who were to be heirs, or who already were heirs, but were not fully so on account of their age; since they cannot act for themselves, nor receive the effect or the full name of heir. Nor yet at that time are they servants in such a way as to truly serve, but they live under keeping: so that they are as servants until the time appointed by the father. For the steward or guardian or tutor has force by the father's institution, so that when the heir has come to his maturity, he acts by his own right, with free will, and governs the inheritance he has received. This similitude, as I said, is referred to those to whom the law was given.

So also we, when we were children, were in bondage under the elements of this world.

But when the fullness of time came, God sent his Son. There was a question about another matter; and in returning to the likeness, he adds something else, that is, something further beyond what had been set forth before. For when the discussion concerned the law, which had been given as if interposed after the promises, and it was said that the law had been inserted before the coming of Christ, because we had still been children and placed under the guardianship of the law; and as he himself said, we were kept under the law, and the law was our pedagogue; although, he says, the law was a pedagogue, yet in Christ (all the foregoing discourse had been about the law, until the time should come when we could be heirs according to the promise) these things, as I said, when he was speaking about the law and adding the likeness, he was pursuing with a complete sense.

But now in the conclusion he draws back not to the law but to the elements: we also, he says, when we were children.

What ought to have followed? We lived under the law. But this is not what is joined; rather, we were in bondage under the elements of this world. This is either something different from what came before, or it depends upon what came before. It must be asked how it is not foreign to it. Without doubt what was said above is this: that as many of us as have been baptized into Christ have put on Christ. But those of us who have put on Christ are neither Jews nor Greeks. But if we who have put on Christ are neither Greeks nor Jews, we are no longer of the world: for the world before the coming of Christ had either a Jew or a Greek. Whether Jew or Greek, while each lived under his own laws, life was conducted under the elements of the world.

For among the Jews it is the practice to punish the sacrilegious man, the thief, the false witness, and the rest. In the same way also among the Greeks, that is among the pagans, these things were and are avenged by laws. But the elements of the world carry with them at the same time both their own motions and, as it were, certain necessities arising from those motions; as in the stars, by whose revolution the life of men is led into necessity: and so men serve the elements, as the stars have commanded, as the course of the world has decreed—from all of which is freed whoever, having faith in Christ, has received from Christ the Spirit as lord of his life, so that he may flee and avoid every necessity of the world and the force of the element, and may not serve the world, but serving the Lord Christ, may have freedom in his actions under the governance of the Spirit.

Something greater therefore than had been hoped was brought in, so that the Galatians might understand that the Jewish law and its precepts and observances and works were to be abandoned in every way: since they see that even the law of the world itself and of the elements has been overturned, and has no force under Christ, and that the power of worldly revolution is utterly overthrown.

But when the fullness of time came, God sent his Son, born of a woman.

As there is a fullness in things, so also in times: for each thing has its own fullness. The fullness and perfection of all things, abundant and complete, is Christ: the fullness of times is the consummation of liberation.

But just as Christ, in order that the whole fullness may be complete and perfect, gathers together the members that are scattered and becomes the fullness; so in the same way the fullness of times was then accomplished, when all things had ripened unto faith and sins had risen to their height, and a remedy was of necessity sought for the death of all things: whence Christ came to the rescue, the fullness of times being complete. And it is said that he sent his Christ: his own, I say, before he sent him, let us understand; but afterwards born of a woman. But he sent his Son, that is, one who was Son to him: and he sent him. How did he send him? Born of a woman. For in this way Christ the Son of God came to the aid of the world and of all of us by his mystery: for we are the world.

Since he himself also, putting on flesh, that is, born of a woman, fulfilled all things that had to be accomplished in the mystery, that is, that he might be seen, and heard, and suffer, and die, and rise again: therefore he sent him born of a woman; him who had been his Son, born of a woman. Some say thus, born of a woman: and they themselves have a question on account of the word they have used; since the Virgin Mary is or was a virgin, why did he say born of a woman? In common usage we say fæmina, which the Greeks call γυνή. Then from the fact that she brought forth Christ, why should he not say woman? For every female who brings forth anything is called a woman: but the force of the mystery, although it is both hidden and holy, yet so that it may be recognized in passing for the moment, must be attended to in this way, that all things that are perfect are called male, all things that are imperfect, female.

Finally we find that when all things are perfected and sanctified and justified they come together into the man.

For it may be understood that it was said thus: since the world, or we who are placed in the world itself, being not most perfect, live our life after the manner of females and women.

In order therefore that Christ, bestowing or about to bestow salvation upon us, might come to us, he was born of a woman

that is, he took also that part by which he would render himself imperfect and make himself equal with us, that is, either the flesh or the world; and since in that world or in that flesh he was born, certainly of a woman, that is of imperfect things, the mystery being completed, sanctified also after the passion and after the resurrection he was made man, that is, possessing and receiving a perfect spirit, he might give us a likeness, so that we also might rise up into the man from the woman, that is from this life, which, since it is corrupt, is rightly called either female or woman. For hence evil comes from the woman: for even in the first man there was no sin except from the woman. Made.

Under this word a very great error arises, so that from it they understand that the Son was not born but made

because he said God sent his Son born of a woman, made under the law. But there is a great difference between saying the Son was made, and saying made under the law. For it is one thing that the Son was sent, who was already Son, and certainly when he was born as Son, but now when he was born of a woman, he can be said to have been made from this point so as to be under the law. But what does it mean that he said made under the law? That he should not be born among the Gentiles, but among the Jews, and in the discipline and law of Moses.

For there every correction could take place; for in Israel the people was called the people of God, to whom Moses received the law from God and gave it to that people who certainly misunderstood the law; and therefore he ought to have come to the aid of those who sinned and to take away their sins; provided only that the same people would recognize the Son of God. For if he had been born elsewhere, that is among the Gentiles, Israel could for that reason fail to recognize him, because he would not seem to have been born in their own nation. But from this the people committed greater sins, in that he who was born in their own nation, that is in the law of Moses, among Israel, was not recognized, although to that very nation, that is to David also, it had been said that to his seed would be given inheritance and eternity. Therefore since David is the father of Israel, he was born there, so that they might recognize him.

Hence it is a greater sin that they did not recognize him who was made under the law. Many things can be said as to why he was made under the law; either because there God alone was already worshipped, or because they had already received oracles and precepts from God, or because Moses was an image and type of Christ; or because when he himself, being what those who are under the law are, also commanded in another way and for the sake of salvation departed from the law—by not observing the sabbath and the rest—they might from this know that salvation is not to be hoped for in the works of the law nor from the law. Hence also the Galatians might understand that they had fallen into error, since even the Saviour himself, in whom they believed, though made under the law, did not nevertheless serve the law.

But these and many other reasons why he was made under the law are not to be gathered together, since he himself has given the reason why he was made under the law: that he might redeem those who were under the law, that we might receive the adoption of sons. This, he says, is the reason why God sent his Son, and sent him indeed as one who was already Son, but now born of a woman; and sent him made under the law. What is the reason he was under the law? That he might redeem those who were under the law. Therefore if he was sent to redeem, we are the more bound if we are redeemed from the law. But he himself also speaks thus in another place when he speaks of a woman: for while her husband lives, she is bound to her husband; but if he dies, she is freed from her husband.

Therefore since the law held men bound as it were by its precepts, only unto the integrity of life, and not also unto the hope of liberation and eternity, God sent his Son, and sent him under the law, that is in Israel, that he might redeem those who had been there and were living under the law. But this is a great thing, that he should not merely provide them a way of living nor only by precepts urge them toward eternity, but that he might redeem them, he says. For this was accomplished by the mystery, that he might redeem all who believe in him, so that all who believe in him might become sons of adoption. Since therefore so great a benefit and the whole benefit is from Christ, nothing is to be added beyond it, nor is the law to be served: for we have been redeemed, and redeemed from the law, and redeemed from this world, that we may be sons of God, but sons by adoption.

For we are not sons as he himself is Son, but sons through the Son. This therefore is the adoption; that we might receive it, he says, God sent his Son. But because you are sons of God, God sent the Spirit of his Son into your hearts. Behold the whole order of these three powers through one virtue and one deity. For, he says, he who is the Father sent his Son, who is Christ. And again Christ himself, who is the power of God, and is himself God, God sent, he says; for now it is the Trinity. And Christ, especially after the mystery sanctified, sent, he says, the Spirit of his Son, who is the Holy Spirit, who descending into our hearts readily knows the Father.

Therefore from God was sent the Son Jesus Christ, in whom those believe who believe, and they are made sons of God: and the Spirit of the Son, that is the Holy Spirit, is sent into them by God, so that they may now hasten, may press on toward the Father, may cry out as it were with an interior sanctification and an interior voice. What they cry out, he himself adds: they cry, Abba, Father. The Spirit has words, and has them the more when they receive the knowledge of the Father. But that very knowledge of the Father, that is when we know the Father, is itself the voice of our spirit toward God, which spirit God gave us: knowledge consonant with him whom it knows is, as it were, a certain voice toward him whom it knows. Therefore since we know God both through God and through Christ, we are made sons both of God himself, and by that very knowledge we have a voice toward the Father.

For just as Christ alone is he who knows God, and from the fact that he knows him, has knowledge, so he calls him and addresses him, because he knows him. Therefore Christ is the Word of God: for I have said that knowledges, inasmuch as they make us understand and designate and grasp and conceive that which we understand, as it were name that thing, whatever it is, by knowledge; for we receive, concerning him whom we know, from him whom we know, the word when we name what it is, because we know these things: which is the whole knowledge of the thing which we know.

Therefore Christ, because he knows God, is the Word of God; and the Spirit, because Christ is given to us, gives us through himself the knowledge of God: hence it comes about that we also are the word, both in Christ and in God; and therefore we cry out as knowers. But the knower, when he is the knower of the known itself, brings it about that the known is the Father and the knower the Son. If this is so, rightly when we know the Father through Jesus, we are made his word from that knowledge: and therefore as sons we cry from thence, Abba, Father.

Therefore you are no longer a servant, but a son. For he who says abba father, names God as father. If he names him father, he is a son: therefore no longer a servant. But if this is so, in Christ there is neither servant nor free, neither male nor female: for we are all one. But to what does all this lead? But if a son, also an heir through God. Therefore if he is called a son, he will also be an heir: an heir, however, not by deeds, not by his own works, but by the mercy of God and the grace of God. This is what he said: but through God. As has been proved in many places, because it is not of him that runneth but of him that hath mercy; and all things are through the grace of God.

But before, not knowing God, you served those who are not gods.

I have often said and warned that to be ignorant of God is to not know Christ; for through Christ he is known. But now, since Christ has appeared who taught me, and showed God through himself, and himself as God and the Father through himself, it is not permitted to be ignorant of God. But before, when you were ignorant of God, he says, O Galatians, you served those who are not gods. I have often warned that gods are spoken of in the plural number, and are spoken of in the law: yet there is one God: the rest are honoured by this name—angels and other powers—as it is said, God of gods. And would that they had served those! But rather you served those who are not gods, namely all worldly and other false powers, imaginary and fashioned and counterfeited by the devil.

But now, having known God, or rather having been known by God, how do you turn again to the weak and beggarly elements of this world?

He adds something else against the Galatians, as though they had also gone over to gentile practice: or he persists in the same accusation which was the first, that they were adding the Jewish law to Christianity as well—concerning circumcision, the sabbath, food—and from this he accuses them, saying: after you have known God through the gospel given by me, how do you turn again to the weak things, which indeed exist. Or understand it thus: whether toward the Jewish, or toward the pagans, who are themselves also weak. But when he added beggarly elements of this world, he touches more upon the pagans, as it were, who also make gods for themselves out of the elements of this world, or worship those very elements—that they worship fire, worship water, worship earth, worship air.

For there is no doubt that they call each of these gods, concerning which there is a long disputation, provided it be certain both that the pagans call individual things gods from the elements, and that they call the discoverers of those elements gods, or make gods for themselves from the elements—so that they make gods from earth, and make gods through fire: and then also call certain demons airy, and again others empyrean, others enhydrous, others genii, that is, earthly, watery, airy, fiery. If therefore the pagans do these things, he seems to rebuke this also, that they have turned even to paganism, especially since he said: before you knew God and were ignorant of God, you served those who are not gods. Which is certainly to be understood of pagans in the foregoing passages as well.

Yet since the whole order and the entire treatment was undertaken for this purpose, to rebuke those Galatians for having turned to Judaism, and all these things are to be understood of the Jews, we understand: how do you turn again to the weak things. Therefore when he said beggarly elements of this world, let us understand that those who interpret the law carnally seem to have turned to elements which are beggarly; for the flesh is always in need and desires to be sustained by food and drink and lusts, all of which are nevertheless weak. Therefore when he says, you turn to weak and beggarly elements, that is, those which are always in need—for the soul and spirit need nothing, nor desire anything except what belongs to them.

But what he said, you have known God, or rather you have been known by God, preserves the force of his own precept, that those come to Christ whom God sends, and whom God calls, and those know the Lord whom God has known: concerning which treatment we have said much above. For those known by God receive the spirit by which they may know God. But certainly, in order that they may be known by God and be known to God, they are already moved by that sovereign spirit which was given so that the soul might be subject to those divine precepts of its Father; when the soul rouses itself, God knows it, and so the soul knows God. But what he said, the beggarly elements of this world, is not because there are other elements, and therefore the elements of this world are beggarly, and elements which are beggarly: although we can also speak of elements in the foregoing sense: but this is far removed from common usage. To which you wish to be enslaved again.

That is, as he said above, before you knew God, you served those who are not gods; now therefore you wish to serve these again: you wish, he says; so that it may be a matter of their will, not of necessity. But that he seems to say these things to the Jews and concerning the Jews, that is, to the Galatians who are joining to themselves the discipline of the Jews, he adds as follows.

You observe days, and months, and seasons and years.

Since seasons is the genus for all, why are days, and months, and years interposed? As though they were something different, which indeed can be the case: for it is one thing to observe days, as for instance to rest on the sabbath: another to observe months, as for instance to observe the new moon, when the moon ends or begins; another to observe years: but another to observe seasons, such as fasting, passover, unleavened bread, and other things of this kind which are many among the Jews. For these are neither years nor months nor days, but seasons.

I fear for you lest perhaps I have laboured among you in vain.

That is, I greatly fear lest all my labour in the gospel by which I instructed you, that you might have faith in Christ—lest this labour, he says, come to nothing. For what I taught you will be in vain, since you have begun to observe the discipline and observances of the Jews.

Be as I am, because I also am as you are.

For how, he says, did I pass over from the discipline of the Jews, and believed in Christ, and serve him, and do otherwise, and taught this to you, and became such as I made you. Live therefore as I live: and if you live, I live.

Brethren, I beseech you, you have not injured me: you know that through weakness of the flesh I preached the gospel to you formerly.

This passage, which is inserted, pertains to persuasion, that in all things we should follow Christ. But that he may more easily persuade this, he recalls the beginnings of his gospel. First he commends his labours, in that even when he had been weak in the flesh and was labouring, he nevertheless imposed a labour upon himself and preached the gospel to the Galatians: he also added formerly, that is, long ago; from which charity toward me and faith toward Christ ought to have been strengthened among you: since indeed a long time has passed. I did not spare my flesh, he says; but through weakness of the flesh I preached the gospel to you, and I preached it formerly: why therefore do you add other things which I did not preach to you?

But when he said you have not injured me, he added this: I withheld nothing from you, I said nothing less, which is what one who is injured does: and lest they should think they had been, as it were, a burden to him, since he preached the gospel when weak in the flesh, he therefore says, you have not injured me, and I, though weak in the flesh on your account, preached the gospel to you formerly; and this you certainly know.

your trial in my flesh you did not despise nor reject.

What we should understand by your trial is ambiguous to me: whether that you test me, or that I test you. That you test me has no sense; for they themselves did not test him. But again, did Paul himself test them, who spoke the truth and preached Christ? For to preach the gospel is not to test. What then, since there is no third option? Or do we understand that when Paul had come to the Galatians, they wished to test him, that is, to question him and inquire something about Christ, whether he knew it: which indeed could appear to be a testing; since the Galatians saw Paul as a weak man, and weak in the flesh: namely, so that this thought came to the Galatians—let us question him, let us see what he answers about Christ, this man who is weak in the flesh.

This, he says, you did not despise in my flesh, and you tested me and did not despise your trial in my flesh: but they would have despised it, that is, they would not have questioned him, and would have thought it false that they could hear what they sought, that is, what they were asking, which is what they were testing: falsely, I say, believing that an answer would be given to them by one who was weak in the flesh. But you persisted, and did not despise your trial in my flesh; but you came to me, to see whether I was in the faith and persevered in the gospel.

Therefore you tested me, weak in the flesh, you questioned me, whether I had a persevering intention of preaching the gospel, even though I was weak in the flesh—that is, you did not reject me as one weak in the flesh, less fit to answer, or one who might change his opinion, who was weak in the flesh: in which he also gave the reason why it could not be or was not the case that his intention of preaching the gospel was otherwise: for I was weak in the flesh, not in mind, not in spirit: and so he said that they too had considered, as it were, that I was weak in the flesh, not also in spirit: and therefore they persisted in testing him, and neither rejected him nor refrained from testing him: that is, you did not despise, you did not spurn your trial. And finally he shows from what follows that they themselves understood Paul to be weak in the flesh, not in spirit: but you received me as an angel, as Christ Jesus.

So far from it being an obstacle to you that I was weak in the flesh, you received me as an angel of God

that is, a messenger, a preacher sent by God; for this is the angel of God; and you received me as Christ Jesus, whom I was preaching to you: so truly did you receive Christ Jesus, if you received me as an angel of God, just as you received Christ Jesus.

What therefore was your blessedness?

He now shows them to be wretched at present, since formerly there had been blessedness for them, because they had received Jesus Christ, because they had received Paul as an angel of God. Great, he says, was your blessedness: was, he says: now therefore certainly the contrary, while you add those things which I did not teach, did not instil, which are outside the gospel, namely those things which I mentioned above. I bear you witness, that, if it could have been done, you would have plucked out your eyes and given them to me. So did you receive me, and such affection did you have toward me, such goodwill, that since nothing is dearer to a man than his eyes, you would have wished to pluck out even your very eyes and give them to me. Therefore since you loved me thus, and loved me on account of the gospel, whence comes this opinion in you, to add to the discipline those things which were not preached to me by the gospel?

That is, to do something from the law besides Christ, and not, as I simply handed it on, having hope, faith, belief in Christ, to hope for all things, to believe that you can obtain all things—both remission of sins, and sanctification, and the glory of God?

Have I therefore become your enemy by telling you the truth?

For if you have begun to do other things, I have become your enemy. But since I foretold and preached to you Christ and the gospel—which is truly that the one Son of God is Christ, all things through him, and all things in Christ, he before all things—since this is true, and is itself the truth; why have I become your enemy? For he ought to be an enemy who, when asked what is true, teaches what is false: but since I have spoken the truth (for he speaks the truth who preaches Christ) it is not fitting that I should have become your enemy.

They are zealous for you, but not well; and they wish to exclude you, that you may be zealous for them: but be zealous for better gifts.

He warns them, as he often does, to beware of snares, because those who persuade the Galatians to follow also the Jewish law are zealous, he says, for you; that is, they envy you; for to be zealous, since it signifies two things—one, when someone is zealous because a thing is pleasing, because it is good; another, whereby they are zealous precisely because they envy—he says, they are zealous for you not well; by which he shows that their zeal springs from envy. Then he added they wish to exclude you, that is, from that happiness and blessedness; because by knowing Christ you have hope of salvation and heavenly glory: but they desire to exclude you from this.

And what he added, that you may be zealous for them, that you also may follow them, he thus placed that twofold significance of being zealous in different places, since emulation is imitation, especially when it is directed toward good. This is what he says here, that you may be zealous for them, that is, that you may follow their good, as it were. But what he said they are zealous for you, to show that the emulation is directed toward envy, he adds not well. But be zealous for better gifts—not those which the Jews have, which are not good, and are not better; but do you be zealous for those things which are good, and for better gifts, that is, be zealous for whatever belongs to faith and charity in relation to Christ, and follow this. It is good always to be zealous for better things. Not, to be zealous is good; but to be zealous for better things, and always, is good. And not only when I am present with you.

My little children, whom I travail in birth again, until Christ be formed in you.

Not only, he says, ought you to be zealous while I am present, but always. To that which he set down, always, he therefore added, and not only when I am present with you. Moreover, what he added, my little children—since they are called so in many ways, now by charity, now by nature, now by blood, now also by religion—in which sense Paul now speaks, my little children: whether because through baptism, when regeneration takes place, he who completes the one baptized, or who received the one completed, is called father; or because when he renews them in Christ, he makes them his sons; for this reason he added whom I travail in birth, that is, I desire to bring forth into the light, and with great pains of my soul I desire them to be born to life and to salvation: for this is what he says, until Christ be formed in you.

For every soul can receive Christ: the soul, I say, of a man, if it uses reason, if it knows the world as not its own, if it discerns all things in the world, if it acknowledges its Creator, it can receive Christ; nay, in that very soul Christ is formed, that is, the Spirit; by whose implanting and growing through belief it is freed, and arrives at the heavenly kingdoms, and attains the salvation of eternal light. Great moreover is the force and power of what he says, until Christ be formed in you. And this discourse, which is now ours, holds to a simple exposition of the words; wherefore we have said above as much as we believe to be sufficient. But what Christ is, and what it is for Christ to be formed, and to be formed in man, a deeper and truer exposition is unfolded and explained by us elsewhere.

But I would desire to be present with you now, and to change my voice, because I am confounded in you.

These precepts, as we see, are given through a letter. With great indignation this was taken up, so that he might say, would that I were now with you and might change my voice!—not that I would proclaim the gospel otherwise, but that I would express it in anger. Now he admonishes through the letter which he sends: and he added the cause of his just anger, because he said I am confounded in you, that is, I am tormented with shame, because you have so quickly turned away, you who are losing so great a faith, who do not hold fast to the labor and the gospel and the truth that was made known to you. For from this there arises in me great confusion on your account. Whereupon, if indeed in anger yet with temptation, he nevertheless subjoins.

Tell me, you who desire to be under the law, have you not read the law?

From the very law itself he desires to persuade them, to which they have made the transition: for if only they read the law itself, from the law itself, I say, he strives to persuade them, that they may understand that it is so written, that one should believe in Christ, and that faith received in Christ is the whole liberation, and the whole salvation, and all blessedness. With what indignation therefore, he says, tell me? It is not I who admonish you, but do you yourselves answer me—you have indeed passed over into the law, and you wish to be under the law, and yet you have not read the law, in which it is so written. And he subjoins, whereby he proves what the law of the Jews and its discipline is, and what the hope, and what the faith, and what faith in Christ is, and what the hope and blessedness.

For it is written, that Abraham had two sons, one by a bondwoman, one by a free woman. This example is from Genesis: by it he desires to prove that the law, which belongs to the Jews, and all that people, is as it were a son of a bondwoman; but the Church and Christians are the son of a free woman. For it is written that Abraham, who is the father of faith, has one son by a bondwoman, that is by Hagar; and another by a free woman, that is Isaac by Sara: signifying indeed two peoples, but this latter the better, who is of the free woman: for Isaac is a figure of Christ. Whereupon he subjoins thus.

But he indeed who was of the bondwoman was born according to the flesh; but he who was of the free woman, by promise.

For he who was born of the bondwoman is a carnal son; but he who was of the free woman is a spiritual son, for this reason, because he was promised by God. For God promised to him who believed, that although both he and his wife were now nearly a hundred years old, they would have a son. Therefore, since both were joined together with seed as it were dead and womb as it were dead, they begot the son they begot not now of the flesh but of the spirit: and this was the promise, that they would have him. But let us compare these two sons, and likewise the mothers of the peoples, the churches of the Jews and of the Christians. Paul however, having interpreted otherwise, subjoins thus.

Which things are spoken by allegory ...

Thus indeed we have interpreted them, as it were by allegory. When one thing is said and another is signified, this is allegory; yet Paul himself interprets that very allegory, as he himself subjoins: For these are the two testaments, the one indeed from mount Sina, generating unto bondage, which is Agar. For Sina is a mountain in Arabia, which is joined to that which is now near Jerusalem. The people of the Jews, he says, or the old testament, signifies the son of the bondwoman: but the bondwoman was she who came from mount Sina. And because the bondwoman was in bondage, therefore also this people is in bondage.

And because mount Sina was joined to that city which is Jerusalem, he wished the city to be understood from the mountain itself, and the Jews through the city: but through the mountain, she who was from that same mount Sina was a bondwoman and generated in bondage; therefore also Jerusalem, that is the people of that same city, and the testament which is written concerning that same city, is in bondage with its children.

But that Jerusalem which is above is free, which is the mother of us all.

He returns to that people, that is to the sons of Abraham who are of the free woman, and says that this Jerusalem also, which he calls free, is in the heavens. This is what he says, but that Jerusalem which is above, and which is above the heavens, because it is not in the world, it does not serve. This Jerusalem therefore, together with its peoples, is free, and he says it is the mother of all of us, that is of Christians; but that one is the mother of the Jews. What this means—that Jerusalem is above the heavens, and that there is also a Jerusalem on earth? Whence it may be understood that here too there is earth and there above the heavens there is earth: for Jerusalem, which is a city, is not without earth.

What this means therefore, I say—that there is earth both here and there, and a city both here and there, but that one free and this one a slave—is a long separate treatise: for now, let us hold to this, that that one is ours, that we must hasten toward that one. For I admonish now in the meantime that that one is spiritual, which is superior; this one is carnal, which is inferior.

For it is written: Rejoice, thou barren that bearest not; break forth and cry, thou that travailest not; for many are the children of the desolate more than of her that hath a husband. This example is from Isaiah, to exclude that which they most desired to persuade, namely that the Galatians, with the veneration of Christ and faith in Christ which they had taken up, should nevertheless also observe the Jewish discipline. To exclude this, I say, that they might reject it and have only the gospel of Christ, he had taken up above the example by which he taught that Abraham had two sons, one by a bondwoman, the other by a free woman. But that free woman, who was truly a wife, was barren, for she would not have brought forth offspring unless God by his promise had provided her with a son.

Whence it is understood that Abraham had a son not from the mingling of their bodies with each other, but from the promise of God; since this son of the free woman, who was Isaac, was born of a barren woman, conceived by a certain spirit rather than by union. This barren woman therefore, who made the son Isaac, who was born in the image and type of Christ—he it is who liberated the people. When therefore he says rejoice, thou barren that bearest not, because God makes sons for thee; likewise when he says, break forth, thou that travailest not; for sons are created for thee without pain—for to travail is to be in pain when the birth is brought forth—which is certainly not the same way when the Church, which holds the image, or whose image was that free wife of Abraham; the Church, I say, is she who has many sons, whom she has as sons of God and sons of the Spirit with joy rather than with pain.

These therefore he says are the many sons of the desolate.

For that bondwoman, even if she had a son, had him with pain, had him by a husband. Therefore when he said, many sons of the desolate, he referred it to the Church, whose image and type he set forth above. Then when he said, many sons of the desolate, more than of her that hath a husband, he showed what was said above—that she had a son without a husband but spiritually. For he would never have given a husband to this one, unless that one had not experienced a husband by the union of a husband, but had received him by a spiritual promise. And certainly many, he says, are the sons of the desolate.

Since Sara had a son, this is certainly not to be referred to Sara, but to the Church which has many sons: so that she who has a husband is the law and the Church of the Jews, which consents carnally, which when joined to itself carnally, cannot have a son spiritually.

But you, brethren, are sons of promise according to Isaac.

With sufficient clarity this comparison separates, so that the Jews appear to be sons of the bondwoman, but Christians sons of the free woman. For as the son promised to Sara is spiritual, so also you who are sons of faith are sons of the free woman according to Isaac: that is, according to faith he had Isaac as a son. Every son therefore who is according to faith comes to be: for according to faith he spiritually receives a son, and the spiritual son Isaac.

But as then, he who was born according to the spirit, so also now.

With full exposition he shows that he who was born according to the flesh, that is of the bondwoman, persecuted him, namely Isaac, who was according to the spirit, as is read in Genesis: and now those who have understanding according to the flesh persecute those who live according to the spirit, that is Christians. Whereupon, to show the force of the whole argument which he has conceived, he subjoins these things.

But what does Scripture say?

Cast out the handmaid and her son; for the son of the handmaid shall not be heir with my son Isaac. He declares sufficiently plainly from this example, which is in Genesis, that whoever thinks and receives the law of the Jews in such a way as to receive it carnally, is a son according to the flesh, concerning whom the law also pronounced and gave its sentence: let the handmaid and her son be cast out, because the son of the handmaid cannot be heir together with the son who is of the free woman, who is Isaac. Therefore you also, because you have joined the observance of the law according to the flesh, so that you might more easily be heirs, be sons of the free woman, that is, receive Christianity alone and the law of Christ and the gospel in Christ, and hold nothing as if from the son of the handmaid, that is, follow not the discipline of the Jews.

Therefore, brethren, we are not sons of the handmaid, but of the free woman. He himself, by adding this more aptly, declares that you who have already received Christ and my faith are not sons of the handmaid, that is, you do not think carnally, since the son of the handmaid is carnal; but you are sons of the free woman, that is, sons of faith. For this is what Isaac was according to faith and promise, a spiritual son. With which liberty Christ has made us free: namely with that liberty by which our mother is free, who is free, namely by faith: for this is true liberty, to keep faith in God, and to believe in God and all the promises of God. Therefore according to faith Christ has brought us back to liberty, and has freed us by the liberty of faith.

Stand fast therefore, and be not held again under the yoke of bondage.

An exhortation had to be added, that they should persevere in those things which they had received from him through the gospel, lest they return again to the servitude of the law. Stand fast, he says; which is not permitted to one who is under a yoke; for that person bows his neck in submission: he does not therefore stand. You therefore, he says, stand fast; which is to hold the body erect with free limbs. Be not willing, he says, to be held again under the yoke of bondage, because previously you were serving either the law or paganism. Therefore he says again, lest we return to the same.

Behold, I Paul say to you, that if you be circumcised, Christ shall profit you nothing.

He shows plainly that Christ does not profit, if anyone places his hope in circumcision, and in carnal circumcision. Therefore when you join yourselves to the custom and precepts and discipline of the Jews, if you place salvation and liberation in these things, I say, he says, to you, and I say it as Paul, who previously promised you this and called you into the gospel of God, I Paul, he says, deny to you that Christ profits you and brings help in nothing, if you be circumcised, if you place all hope in circumcision. Although the Galatians appear both to have received Christ and to join the Jewish discipline, nevertheless he affirmed it and bound his own person, as it were, to what he says by saying, Christ shall profit you nothing if you be circumcised.

It may therefore seem that there is something hidden, I know not what: since the Galatians follow Christ, and following Christ place the hope of salvation in him, how has Paul confirmed this, that Christ shall profit nothing if the Galatians be circumcised? For while keeping their mind and faith toward Christ, they do something more, yet they do not abandon Christ, nor do they fail to place faith in Christ. But let us return to the mind and purpose and will. Since they received Christ from Paul, and took up faith in Christ, and this is the true gospel, they surely thought they would receive less from Christ, which is already blasphemy and the mark of those who have no faith, from the fact that after receiving Christ they wished to be circumcised and to serve the law and its works. But if this is so, there is no faith in Christ: from the fact that something else which can profit is added, Christ shall rightly profit you nothing.

I testify to every man circumcising himself, that he is a debtor to do the whole law.

Lest the Galatians should think that only certain things from the law, which is of the Jews, were to be taken up by them, such as circumcision, while they might despise the rest, whether in foods, or in the observance of days, or in the union which is of such a kind, and of such matters as are retained in the law, in all of which certain things are left aside as superfluous, certain things as almost abominable, by the true and most chaste Christian. I will mention one thing only: when for the purpose of raising up seed a wife is joined to her husband's brother; and other things of this kind are either done or read as having been done: likewise the other things I mentioned concerning foods, then concerning observances, and many other matters as well: these also must be taken up, he says, by one who circumcises himself.

But if you do not do the other things, you have applied circumcision in vain.

For I testify that to every man circumcising himself, there arises a necessity that he be a debtor to do all things that belong to the law. He therefore makes them sinners also in that law which they have taken up, from the fact that they do not do all things, and choose what is to be done: and again with respect to the law which is Christ's, and with respect to the gospel, they go entirely astray, and will go more astray if they do all things that belong to the law. Finally he adds from this side now, on which they do certain things that the Jews do, from this side, I say, that they appear to be strangers to Christ.

You are made void of Christ, you who are justified in the law; you are fallen from grace.

For all the virtue of one believing in Christ is in the grace of God. But grace is not from merits, but from the piety of God: therefore you have already fallen from grace, if you place your justification in the law; so that because you serve works, because you observe the sabbath, because you are circumcised, you have fallen from grace, and are made void of Christ. For you no longer have hope from Christ, nor do you hope for grace to come to you according to his passion and resurrection, if you believe that justification comes from the law.

For we in spirit and faith await the hope of justice. We Christians, he says, and those who follow Christ, have hope in spirit and in faith, and in the justification of God not from works. For all the virtue of the mystery has worked this, that through grace and the piety of God the remission of sins might be granted to us, and eternal life be bestowed, as we have often taught, from the grace of God, not from works or merits. But this comes about through the spirit. When, however, justification is hoped for from works, the hope is not from the spirit. This we await, and this is to follow the gospel of Christ.

For in Christ Jesus neither circumcision availeth anything, nor uncircumcision; but faith which worketh by charity. Everywhere he sets down, with respect to faith in the gospel of Christ, that neither circumcision avails, nor deeds concerning the body, or deeds done from the body, or on account of the body, such as circumcision, such as works, such as other things of this kind: none of these, he says, avail in Christ: circumcision is in vain. Nor do we avail in Christ from the fact of being uncircumcised; but because we have taken up faith in him, and because we believe his promises, and because from his resurrection we also rise again, and have suffered all things with him, and with him, yet through him, rise again to life; we have a sure faith, through which faith the working unto salvation comes about, and we ought to receive it through charity, which we have toward Christ and toward God, and thence toward every man.

For these two things especially correct all of life and fulfil all the force of the law, and contain all those things which are commanded in the decalogue. If one who keeps faith follows, it follows that he keeps charity, which two things fulfil all that the law of Christ has commanded. On these matters I have treated very often, that faith liberates, and charity builds up.

You did run well; who hath hindered you?

That is, you had good faith concerning the gospel; why have you changed? Why, as if by some enchantment, have you been called back from your full course? For that which I taught you through the gospel was wholly true; this is both false and contrary, and will profit nothing. This is what he adds: That you should not obey the truth. Who, he says, hath hindered you, that you should not obey the truth? For in us is the truth: you ought to have obeyed this, lest you observe anything else. Therefore first he marvels, as it were, when he said, who hath hindered you. Afterwards he now warns what is to be done: consent to no one. He fights in every way, lest they change their opinion and add anything beyond what was commanded to them through the gospel by Paul. Be not willing, he says, to give consent to others.

Your persuasion is from God, who hath called us.

That is, what has been persuaded to you either by me, or what you yourselves now have as persuaded by God, who called you, as was said above, whom he called and predestined: the rest also have been said in order.

Know you not that a little leaven corrupteth the whole mass?

All leaven is the corruption of bread, and corrupted bread is flour, and a mass of flour, when it is left, turns sour, and from this leaven is produced. But a little leaven, when it is put into the mass, corrupts the mass. You ought, he says, to be unleavened. Therefore that which you think you have added as a small thing, that is, that you observe circumcision, this small thing, because it is corrupt, corrupts the mass of our gospel, so that you do not have full hope in Christ, nor does Christ look upon you as his own and as having hope from him: for faith liberates: and, as we said, he has no faith who hopes for help in any way beyond Christ, even if together with Christ.

I have confidence in you in the Lord, that you will not be of another mind.

I have good confidence now concerning the future, he says, that you will have nothing else in your heart and wisdom, except that you hold faith in Christ alone according to my gospel. But he who troubleth you shall bear the judgment, whosoever he be. And he has frightened both those who were leading them astray, and these by the threats of future judgment: he who troubleth you, he says, shall bear the judgment. But it suffices to have named judgment, in which surely it ought not to have been said what punishment they will suffer, but truly judgment. Then he added beforehand that the judgment to come is from him. But he has already expressed the fear of punishment, as it were, when he said he shall bear it.

But I, brethren, if I yet preach circumcision, why do I yet suffer persecution?

He proves in every way that he is a stranger to the precept which they thought should be joined. He suffers persecution from the Jews. For what cause? Unless because I do not preach circumcision. Therefore I did not preach circumcision to you in the gospel: from the fact that the Jews persecute me. He adds also another argument, to show that he does not preach circumcision. Is the scandal of the cross then made void? It is in vain that they deserve punishment who raised Christ upon the cross, and that which was done wickedly is made void. For this is the scandal of the cross, from which the Jews were also troubled. Now he has referred this not only to his own preaching, but also to the force of the matter. Therefore I do not preach it, because the scandal of the cross remains and has not been made void. They therefore owe penalties.

But if the Jews owe them, who brought about the scandal of the cross, it remains that I also do not preach it, and that you ought not to follow circumcision.

I would they were even cut off who trouble you!

He has pursued with a curse those who inject these new persuasions into them and trouble them. Let them be cut off from the truth of the gospel, he says, or let them be separated from themselves, or let them be torn by punishments. And with great confidence he has hurled a curse upon them, to show that they are not feared by him, by whom he said above that he suffers persecution. Thus I neither fear persecution, because I preach true things and do not preach circumcision, nor do I fear to suffer persecution. I would they were even cut off who trouble you! Not only let them be circumcised, but let them even be cut off: so that this word also may be so placed as pertaining to circumcision, that there may be also a cutting off.

For you, brethren, have been called unto liberty: only make not liberty an occasion to the flesh. For the law of Christ, which is spiritual, gives liberty, by which we go forth from the world and return to the Father and to our origin. But since we are still in the world, that is, in the flesh, we ought not to exercise this liberty which we have received in such a way as to walk according to the flesh; and as though it were an occasion for us even of doing things in the flesh, since faith in Christ confirms us to be free. By the charity of the Spirit serve one another. We have received the liberty that was given, yet we ought to serve one another through charity, and the charity of the spirit, not of the flesh.

For the whole law is fulfilled in you in one word. He has set forth this meaning frequently, and we have treated it; because the whole law, and every operation of the law, is fulfilled in this word, that is, of charity: for he who loves another neither commits adultery nor steals: and this is also to love Christ: and those things which the decalogue sets forth are in a certain manner fulfilled in this one commandment alone, as we said in the foregoing. He himself then subjoins an example from Exodus. Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. But we ought to take every man as our neighbour; and then we shall also have Christ as our neighbour. Therefore do you also love one another, but in the spirit. From this point he seems, as though setting aside the earlier question and discussion, to give a commandment by way of exhortation, that they should not love discord, but love one another.

This can come to pass if you love one another, and love in the spirit, not in the flesh, nor in the works of the flesh, nor in the observance of the flesh. For he who loves another defrauds nothing, snatches nothing from another, neither harms, nor despises, nor rebukes.

But if you bite and accuse one another, take heed that you be not consumed by one another.

The exhortation to concord arises from this, while it is taught what evil discord brings about: for if you accuse and bite one another, that is, you wish to harm or do harm, you will consume one another. Therefore love and cherish one another, and you will fulfil the law by charity alone: not, as you suppose, by circumcision or works and other such things pertaining thereto. This addition therefore concerning charity, in accordance with the foregoing discussion, by which he was teaching them that they were outside the Gospel which had been proclaimed to them by Paul himself, and that they supposed themselves to be observing the law in circumcision and works; whereas the law is full only in this, if they love one another.

But I say to you, walk in the spirit, and you shall not fulfil the desire of the flesh.

This is the whole power of the gospel: to live according to the spirit, to believe according to the spirit, to have nothing of the flesh in the mind and in action and in life; that is, not to take up hope from the flesh. Walk therefore, he says, in the spirit, that is, conduct your life: and if you do this, you shall not fulfil the desire of the flesh; that is, you shall commit no sin, which is born from the flesh: for there is no other desire except from the flesh. Therefore he subjoins.

For the flesh lusteth against the spirit, but the spirit against the flesh. So that they may altogether understand that they ought to think nothing from the flesh, which consists in circumcision and the other observances from Jewish discipline, since he teaches that these things are contrary to one another: not only does the flesh lust, but it also lusts against the spirit. For the flesh has its own motions and its own senses, nor are they stirred up only by the soul: which may be understood even in those things which have no soul; as in water, which has its own impulses and its own powers, whether in taste, or in motion, or in quality or quantity: likewise fire and equally earth and the other elements, from which as from a certain mixture the flesh also has been made from moist things.

Those who are spiritual.

As though speaking to one of those who are spiritual, he brought this forth in such a way that each of them should consider lest he himself also be tempted: and therefore he ought to come to the aid of and instruct such a man; and by the spirit given through discussion, to call him back to modesty and equanimity.

Bear one another's burdens.

He returned to the plural number, so that every man may bear the evils of others; and what another suffers, he should bear, sustain, correct, as far as he is able: for this is to bear burdens, to bear patiently another's fault and to correct it. And so you shall fulfil the law of Christ. For thus he himself also, being patient, bore our evils, and himself endured on account of our evils. The law of Christ, he says, you shall fulfil, not simply the law.

For if anyone thinks himself to be something, when he is nothing, he deceives himself. He now proves by reason that the one who boasts himself out of desire for glory ought both to be corrected and instructed in the spirit, since that man is wretched who leads himself astray, deceives, deludes himself, who thinks himself to be something when he is nothing. For if this is the sum of the law, that whoever is humble, cast down, lowest; for thus God chooses from the lowest those whom he may raise up and make high; every man who claims something for himself, and esteems himself to be something, is without doubt nothing. For what is something in the world, when there is nothing in the world? And thus to conduct oneself as though one were nothing in the world, this is to be something before God.

But if anyone thinks himself to be something in the world, whether wise or intelligent, or a lord, or a king, or rich, or any of these things; whether in riches, or in mind, or in skill, or in virtue; he, since the wisdom of the world is foolishness before God, he, I say, is nothing; and since he is nothing, he deceives and deludes himself.

But let each one prove his own work, and then he shall have glory in himself alone, and not in another.

Great exhortations, and great discipline also! Let no one, he says, claim anything for himself, nor hold the opinion that he is something: let him only prove his own work; but let each one prove his own work by his own judgment, lest, having used a bad judge, he prove that he has done well, when perhaps he has not done well. Let him therefore prove, and make his work proved: with his work thus proved, then he shall have glory in himself alone, not in another. For he who thinks himself to be something boasts himself and seeks glory from another: but he who either himself proves his own work, or proves it to others, has glory from himself, and before himself, and does not await it from another. For I do not wish, he says, to be praised by man, nor to be approved by men, but by God.

For each one shall bear his own burden. A burden is set in the middle, whether good or bad. Therefore his own burden, he says, all shall bear, each his own.

But let him who is catechized in the word communicate with him who catechizes in all good things.

The meaning is this: to catechize is to resound around or to sound alongside, which happens when someone begins to be a Christian at the outset, and God and Christ are sounded alongside him, and it is spoken into his ears, and is sent into his mind: this is he who is catechized in the word: that is, if anyone is catechized through the word, so that it may be sounded alongside him through invocation. He therefore who is catechized in the word, let him communicate in all good things with him who catechizes; that is, let him be in no respect not common with him; yet let him be common in all things with him who catechizes the word, so that he may have all things in communion with him, but all things that are good.

For since it was said above, Instruct such a man in the spirit of meekness, assuredly what he catechizes is good; and he who catechizes this so good word, catechizes in good things. Therefore let him who is catechized in the word communicate with him who catechizes.

Be not deceived; God is not mocked.

He subjoins another precept which, though general in application to all things, pertains nonetheless to what was treated above, lest they follow something other than the gospel; that is, lest they also add the discipline and works of the Jews. Be not deceived, he says; for all those things which are taken up outside the gospel are errors. And he added the force of necessity to the precept; God, he says, is not mocked. He did not say, For God knows all things; lest they hope as it were either for pardon of their error, or that it might be able to be hidden: he is not mocked, he says. And he subjoins what shall come to pass for those who hold their life on earth.

For whatsoever a man shall sow, that also shall he reap. That is, he who sows wheat shall have a harvest from wheat; but if he sows tares, that also shall he reap: he who is a reaper of evil sows evil. Does he sow good? He shall receive fruit from good: so also the harvest is as the seed. Because he who sows in his own flesh shall reap corruption from the flesh; but he who sows in the spirit shall reap from the spirit life eternal. The Galatians who thought that the discipline of the Jews was to be taken up by them, so that they might observe the sabbaths and receive circumcision, and do other such things, knowing them carnally, had hope in the flesh and from the flesh. Whoever therefore has hope in the flesh, and sows his hope around the flesh, shall have a harvest from the flesh; which fruit he calls corruption. For the flesh is corrupted, and this is its end, that it be corrupted, rot, perish, come to nothing.

All things therefore which are of the flesh rot, have corruption: for no one ought to hope from the flesh, nor sow in the flesh

that is, place hope in the flesh. For if he has placed his hope there, he shall have fruit from the flesh. What fruit? Destruction, corruption. For this is the fruit of the flesh. It is therefore better to place hope in the spirit, so that we may be able to have hope from the spirit: which hope is from the spirit, and what fruit is from the spirit; this is to sow in the spirit, that is, life eternal. For this life is not eternal life. But he who is in the spirit, he lives, and acts according to the spirit, works nothing carnally, sows for himself life eternal, and this shall be his harvest, that departing hence he may receive life eternal.

But doing good, let us not fail.

It is too little that we do good, for our merit is not straightway acceptable to God if we do good, but if doing good we do not fail. For many begin, many as it were persevere, yet afterwards cease, either wearied or led astray: rightly did he warn that we should not fail in any manner, lest failing we abandon what we have begun, when we have begun to do good. For in due time we shall reap, not failing. Beautifully added. For many in this manner of life which is called good, if they suffer any evil, think that they do so without cause when they do good, and wearied they cease to do good. What therefore did he add? Let us not fail, because although today we may not obtain the fruit of doing well; afterwards, he says, we shall reap; that is, we shall have the harvest of our good deed, if we have not failed in doing good.

Therefore while we have time, let us work. He gave the greatest necessity for doing good: time is pressing, life is quickly ended, the end of the world is now at hand. While, he says, we have time, whether of our own life or of this life in the world, let us work good, and let us work it toward all, so that there may be no exception of persons, no other action; but let us work good, and let us work good toward all. For if charity builds up, and we ought to hold every man dear, all the good that we work, we work toward all. But especially toward those of the household of faith. He said, let us work good toward all: yet he makes a gradation, so that the good which we work toward all, we should work especially toward those who are of the household of faith, that is, who have received faith in Christ and in God.

He set this forth with great conclusion in his exhortation, which pertained especially to the Galatians: for they, adding also certain things from Judaism, were not acting from faith, but as it were from works they believed, and from carnal observance they supposed they would have fruit; therefore he added, let us especially work good toward those of the household of faith, who have received faith alone in the gospel, that is, in Christ and God.

Behold with how large letters I have written to you with my own hand!

In order to show his familiarity, and lest it be a cause of shame to them that others know that they either sin or are corrected, with my own hand, he says, I have written to you, and he gave a sign of charity. And the change of life is easy for you when it is corrected by me, since you owe your conscience to me alone.

Whosoever desire to please in the flesh, these compel you to be circumcised.

He openly sets forth that very thing which he was reproving in the Galatians—that they were departing from the commandment of the gospel—under the guise of their wishing to be circumcised. All, he says, who desire to please in the flesh, persuade you to be circumcised, which consists only in that single outward act of being circumcised, not in any assistance toward salvation. Only that they may not suffer the persecution of the cross of Christ. They reckon, he says, that they will not pay the penalty for having raised Christ upon the cross and persecuted him, if to the gospel—that is, to the confession concerning Christ—you add, or they themselves add, circumcision as well.

But they also sin in this: that whereas all hope is in Christ and especially in his cross, we should think—or they think—that it is also in circumcision; and therefore they persuade, as though they would not have to suffer the persecution of the cross of Christ, that is, for having raised Christ upon the cross.

For neither do they who are circumcised keep the law. For in Christ neither uncircumcision nor circumcision avails. What law then did he mean? Either that which is to be understood spiritually, or that which Christ gave, which is without doubt both spiritual and teaches spiritual things and is to be practiced spiritually. But they desire you to be circumcised, that they may glory in your flesh. He reveals their cunning—those who persuade, so as to appear to have persuaded you—that they may glory in your flesh, even though circumcision profits nothing; but they seek glory for themselves alone, so that in what is done in your flesh they may reckon themselves to have obtained what without this would leave no hope; so that they may now seem to have prevailed, lest hope rest in Christ alone, unless the discipline of the Jewish law in circumcision be also joined to it.

But God forbid that I should glory in nothing.

He first reproves their glory: for their glory is to glory in the flesh; but I, he says, glory in nothing—neither in the flesh, nor in man, nor in any of these things, nor in myself. And it has already been said and often admonished that whoever glories should glory in God, of which we have treated above. Save in the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ. That is, that all hope be placed there, and that from thence be glory and joy: because there, in the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ, our salvation and eternity were sought. By whom the world is crucified to me, and I to the world. That very cross of our Lord Jesus Christ is the glory, because by that mystery, while he hung the flesh upon the cross and in it triumphed over the power of this world, the whole world was crucified through him.

But since he held that catholic body for every man, he made catholic all that he suffered

that is, so that all flesh was crucified in him. Therefore I also am crucified, and I am fixed to the world. I, he says—that carnal one, and the one who felt according to the flesh—am fixed to the world, that is, bound together with the world unto punishment.

For in Christ Jesus neither circumcision is anything nor uncircumcision, but a new creature. What we touched upon above: although this meaning is everywhere present, he reminds us what the mystery has accomplished—that in Christ Jesus there is no distinction of person, no separation: all equally who follow Christ merit eternal life: for it is not because of circumcision that one is therefore something in Christ; nor because of uncircumcision is one therefore something in Christ; but in whichever of these a man may be, whoever he is, if only he be reborn and made a new man through the mystery, all shall avail in Christ.

as many as walk according to this rule, peace be upon them, and upon the Israel of the Lord.

He has concluded that this alone is the rule: to hope in Christ, and not to distinguish the power of Christ from uncircumcision or circumcision, but a new creature, whatever it may be; through Christ and in Christ the full hope of salvation and eternity and glory. This rule, he says—not as you Galatians wished to hold it—those who follow this glory, peace be upon them. And he added, upon the Israel of the Lord; not upon Israel as any Judean whatsoever, but the Israel of the Lord. For Israel is truly of the Lord if it follows the Lord, so as to hope for its salvation from no other source.

Henceforth let no man trouble me.

That is, let no one henceforth make me anxious, sorrowful, and burdened with troubles by their sins. For thus we said at the beginning that he bore it ill and grieved that they had sinned.

He admonishes therefore at the close of the letter that they should not turn back to any sins, lest they cause him trouble. For I bear in my body the marks of our Lord Jesus Christ. That is, every suffering, and those things which he endured on the cross—nails piercing the body, or the wound of the lance through the side, and the rest—these marks, he says, of Jesus Christ our Lord I bear in my body: that is, I too have suffered, and in the mystery I serve together with Christ, I suffer the mystery of Christ: wherefore you also ought to endure many adversities, all of them: because he who suffers with Christ will be with Christ, and he who has begun in his own conduct to suffer from adversaries the things which Christ suffered: from which he shows both what he himself suffers, how much he merits from Christ, and also what we too ought to suffer, if we wish to be with Christ.

The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with your spirit, brethren.

The conclusion of the letter is made: it is a prayer and blessing that grace may be present; but with your spirit, he says, be the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ; so that, because you live in Christ, the grace of Christ may be with your spirit.